Hugh Flynn -- Sonofusion -- Cold Fusion -- US Patent 4333796

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> ---

>  **Hugh
> FLYNN**
>
>  
>
> **SonoFusion**
>
> **---
>
> ****[ Source Unknown
> -- ]**  What did
> turn out to be an effective approach in the
> cavitation process was the with ultrasonic waves
> creating of bubbles in heavy water with
> palladium for the hosting metal. This marriage
> between the cold-fusion process and the
> cavitation process stemming from 1989,
> unexpectedly turned out to be effective in the
> hands of Roger Stringham, a researcher of First
> Gate Energies, in Hawaii, USA. He developed what
> he calls the sonofusion process, which produces
> twice as much watts of heat than was put in in
> the form of energy. In a tiny device of 20 grams
> he produces piezoelectrically in heavy water
> bursting bubbles that generate about 100 watts
> of energy with an input of 50 watts. In the
> process is also Helium 4 created, a standard
> byproduct of cold fusion. He temporarily
> collaborated with the researchers Ruses George
> and Steve Wolff. Based on his findings he
> acquired a patent in 2004: U.S.10/925,347. He is
> also copied by other cold fusion researchers
> like Xu and Butt of the Purdue University
> (pesn-page, his research, article, page). The
> generation of energy by means of sound and by
> influencing atomic processes was already known
> from Keely. The hereupon based generation of
> cavitation-energy with sound isn't something new
> either. It was preceded by a patent (U.S.
> 4333796) of Hugh H. Flynn that was filed in 1978
> (and obtained in 1982). He directed from four
> sides sound waves through a sealed chamber
> containing fluid metal consisting of
> Lithium-alloys mixed with hydrogen isotopes in
> the process of which meanwhile gravity was
> canceled by means of magnetic pulses. He also
> made use of the element Deuterium. What he did
> was thus in fact cold fusion tens of years
> before Fleischmann and Pons made their heavy
> water discovery of the electrical version of
> this cold fusion process.****---**
>
> ****US
> Patent # 4,333,796****
>
> ****Method of generating energy by
> acoustically induced cavitation fusion and
> reactor therefor****
>
> Hugh Flynn   
> June 8, 1982
>
> ******Abstract******** 
>
> Two different
> cavitation fusion reactors (CFR's) are disclosed. Each
> comprises a chamber containing a liquid (host) metal
> such as lithium or an alloy thereof. Acoustical horns in
> the chamber walls operate to vary the ambient pressure
> in the liquid metal, creating therein small bubbles
> which are caused to grow to maximum sizes and then
> collapse violently in two steps. In the first stage the
> bubble contents remain at the temperature of the host
> liquid, but in the second stage the increasing speed of
> collapse causes an adiabatic compression of the bubble
> contents, and of the thin shell of liquid surrounding
> the bubble. Application of a positive pressure on the
> bubble accelerates this adiabatic stage, and causes the
> bubble to contract to smaller radius, thus increasing
> maximum temperatures and pressures reached within the
> bubble. At or near its minimum radius the bubble
> generates a very intense shock wave, creating high
> pressures and temperatures in the host liquid. These
> extremely high pressures and temperatures occur both
> within the bubbles and in the host liquid, and cause
> hydrogen isotopes in the bubbles and liquid to undergo
> thermonuclear reactions. In one type of CFR the
> thermonuclear reaction is generated by cavitation within
> the liquid metal itself, and in the other type the
> reaction takes place primarily within the bubbles. The
> fusion reactions generate energy that is absorbed as
> heat by the liquid metal, and this heat is removed from
> the liquid by conduction through the acoustical horns to
> an external heat exchanger, without any pumping of the
> liquid metal.
>
> Current U.S.
> Class:  376/100 ; 376/102; 376/149; 976/DIG.1   
> Current International Class:  G21B 1/00 (20060101);
> G21B 001/00   
> References Cited [Referenced By]   
> U.S. Patent Documents
>
> 3047480 July 1962
> Lovberg et al.   
> 3084629 April 1963 Yevick   
> 3346458 October 1967 Schmidt   
> 3624239 October 1971 Fraass   
> 3756344 September 1973 Daiber et al.   
> 3925990 December 1975 Gross   
> 4043755 August 1977 Bartko et al.
>
> Other References
>
> New Scientist
> (5/24/79), pp. 626-630, Kenward. .   
> Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 37, No. 14 (10/4/76), pp.
> 897-898, Jacobson et al. .   
> Physics of Fluids, vol. 16, No. 12 (12/73) Means et al.,
> pp. 2304-2318.   
> J. Plasma Physics (1975), vol. 14, pt. 3, pp. 373-387,
> Frommelt et al..
>
> Description 
>
> This invention
> relates to a method of producing thermonuclear energy by
> cavitation of a liquid metal, and more particularly to a
> reactor in which such energy may be generated.
>
> BACKGROUND OF
> INVENTION
>
> When certain liquids
> are subjected to reduction in pressure of an appropriate
> duration and magnitude, small pre-existing bubbles of
> gas and vapor in the liquids expand to some maximum size
> and then collapse with great violence. This phenomenon
> is called cavitation and, when properly controlled,
> causes very high energy densities to occur both within
> the bubbles and in the surrounding liquid. The invention
> disclosed hereinafter relates to a device called a
> cavitation fusion reactor (CFR), which uses cavitation
> of a liquid metal to bring about thermonuclear fusion of
> hydrogen isotopes and other liquid (low Z) elements,
> both within a bubble created in the host liquid (metal),
> and in the surrounding host liquid. In its normal
> operation a reactor of this type produces one or more of
> the following: the release of energy which is removed as
> heat; the creation of elements, such as tritium or
> helium-3, that can be used as thermonuclear fuel, either
> in the CFR itself in a regenerative manner or in some
> other fusion device; the fission of heavy elements
> distributed in the liquid metal; and the radiation of
> neutrons.
>
> In what follows, as
> asterisk (\*) used on a symbol for a physical quantity
> denotes a quantity that is in some system of units.
> Thus, R.sub.n \* denotes the equivalent or equilibrium
> radius of a bubble in centimeters. The symbol R\* is the
> time-varying radius of the bubble in centimeters. The
> symbol, R, is the non-dimensional radius of a bubble and
> is defined by R=R\*/R.sub.n \*. The absence of an asterisk
> denotes a non-dimensional quantity. The words "negative
> pressure" will mean a reduction of the ambient pressure
> in the liquid metal by an applied pressure, which may or
> may not make the total pressure less than zero. The
> small bubbles from which cavitation starts will be
> called "seeds", the liquid in which the cavitation takes
> place will be called the "host liquid", and a method of
> obtaining a specified distribution of seeds will be
> called "seeding" the host liquid. A very small seed
> containing N moles of gas may be lodged on a minute
> particle and not have a spherical shape. The term,
> "equivalent radius", R.sub.n \*, will be used to denote
> the radius of a spherical bubble containing the same
> number of moles of gas at the same ambient temperature
> and pressure in the host liquid. For a spherical bubble
> at rest in a liquid, the terms "equivalent radius" and
> "equilibrium radius" are identical. The cycle of
> expansion and contraction that a bubble undergoes under
> the influence of an applied pressure field will be
> called a "cavitation event", and the region in the host
> liquid where these events occur will be called the
> "cavitation zone". Seeds may be a random distribution of
> very small bubbles with some average equivalent radius
> (say, of the order of 10.sup. -5 or 10.sup.-4 cm.) or
> may be distribution of larger bubbles whose equivalent
> radii fall in a specified range. The words "bubble" and
> "cavity" used herein are synonyms.
>
> Two main types of
> cavitation fusion reactors are described hereinafter:
> the Type I CFR, which maximizes the production of energy
> and other useful products through thermonuclear fusion
> in the host liquid; and the Type II CFR, which maximizes
> the production of tritium and other useful products
> through thermonuclear fusion within the bubbles in the
> host liquid.
>
> Both types of
> cavitation fusion reactors may be operated in a mode
> which produces little or no radioactive products. In
> this mode the reaction is between lithium nuclei and
> ordinary hydrogen (.sub.1 H.sup.1 or h) nuclei. In
> alternative modes of operation the devices use deuterium
> (.sub.1 H.sup.2 or d), tritium (.sub.1 H.sup.3 or t), or
> a mixture of both d and t as the H-isotope fuel, and the
> liquid metal may be lithium, beryllium, aluminum, tin,
> indium, thallium or some other element or alloy.
> Deuterium is the heavy hydrogen isotope (H-isotope) that
> occurs in nature, while tritium, the other heavy
> H-isotope, does not. Only deuterium need be supplied
> from an external source in both the start-up phase and
> steady-state operation of the Type I CFR or a Type II
> CFR. Type I CFR uses a mixture of deuterium and tritium
> in order to yield a net gain of energy that can be
> transformed into useful work. The required inventory of
> tritium is produced within the reactor by the fusion of
> deuterium nuclei and the interaction of neutrons with
> lithium or lithium alloyed with beryllium. In a similar
> manner, a Type II CFR may operate as a generator of
> tritium that requires only deuterium as the externally
> supplied fuel.
>
> Once a CFR of either
> type is placed in operation, the reactor will "breed"
> its own tritium; that is, the reactor will produce more
> tritium than it burns, no matter whether or not the
> fusion reactions start with deuterium alone or with a
> mixture of deuterium and tritium.
>
> THE HOST LIQUID
>
> In the collapse of a
> cavitation bubble, the controlling parameter is the
> compressibility of the host liquid. Viscosity plays a
> minor role and in the final stage of collapse the
> interface moves so rapidly that the effect of heat
> conduction is minimal and the entropy of the gas and
> vapor within the bubble becomes constant. The term
> "compressibility" is here used with a specific meaning:
> a compressible liquid is one with a finite speed of
> sound. The greater the speed of sound in a liquid, the
> less is its compressibility in this sense used here. If
> the speed of sound of a liquid were infinite, the liquid
> would be incompressible.
>
> All real liquids have
> finite speeds of sound which increase with an increase
> of pressure in the liquid. When the speed of sound in a
> liquid is low, compressibility is most effective in
> moderating the violence of collapse of a bubble and in
> lowering the maximum temperatures and pressures that can
> be attained. When a bubble collapses, the pressure in
> the liquid at and near the interface increases, and
> hence the local speed of sound increases there also.
> Because of this increase in the speed of sound at the
> interface, the violence of collapse may also be
> increased.
>
> For this invention
> the host liquid must be one with a speed of sound as
> large as possible, and thus the host liquid must be a
> liquid metal. While all liquid metals have large speeds
> of sound, lithium and beryllium have the largest speeds
> of sound over a wide range of pressures.
>
> One important
> characteristics of a liquid metal is its vapor pressure.
> Listed below are the vapor pressures of several liquid
> metals at their melting points:
>
> \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
> Metal
> MP (K) Vapor Pressure (bars) .DELTA.K
> \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Li 452 1.63
> .times. 10.sup.-13 566 Be 1552 4.18 .times. 10.sup.-5
> 207 Al 933 2.42 .times. 10.sup.-11 877 In 430 1.42
> .times. 10.sup.-22 1092 Sn 505 5.78 .times. 10.sup.-26
> 1260 \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
>
> The melting points
> (MP) are listed in degrees Kelvin and the range of
> temperatures above the melting point in which the vapor
> pressure remains less than 1 mm Hg (1.33
> .times.10.sup.-3 bars) is listed under the heading
> .DELTA.K. The quantity .DELTA.K., is an important
> measure of the suitability of a metal as a host liquid.
> Of the metals listed beryllium has the smallest value of
> .DELTA.K. and a relatively high vapor pressure at its
> melting point.
>
> Cavitation bubbles
> spend most of their lifetimes in an expanded state in
> which the vapor pressure of the liquid may be much
> greater than the pressure of the gas in it. Consequently
> a high vapor pressure at the start of collapse could
> have a disproportionate effect on the maximum
> temperatures and pressures attained at the end of
> collapse. Similarly, during collapse, a high vapor
> pressure could mean that a large fraction of the
> mechanical energy used in compressing the bubble would
> be expended in heating and ionizing the vapor atoms
> rather than the hydrogen isotopes. On the other hand,
> the presence of a small amount of vapor could have the
> effect of decreasing the thermal conductivity of the
> gas-vapor mixture and thus hastening the onset of the
> adiabatic phase of compression. Both lithium and
> aluminum are examples of liquid metals with moderate
> vapor pressures over a wide range of temperatures above
> their melting points. Indium and tin are examples of
> liquid metals that have very low vapor pressures over an
> even wider range of temperatures above their melting
> points. Beryllium is an example of a liquid metal with a
> relatively large vapor pressure and a small value of
> .DELTA. K. A large value of .DELTA.K. permits the
> selection of an ambient or operating temperature,
> .theta.\*, in a reactor over a large range without
> causing an unfavorable rise in vapor pressure in
> collapsing bubbles.
>
> Lithium and beryllium
> are unique among host metals in that their use in a CFR
> gives rise to material products that either may be used
> as fuel in subsequent cavitation events or are inert
> gases effective in slowing down neutrons.
>
> Both of the natural
> isotopes of lithium interact with neutrons to produce
> helium-4 and tritium. Lithium-6 has a large collision
> cross section for the capture of thermal neutrons and
> the reaction produces energy that is absorbed as heat.
> The more abundant isotope, lithium-7, which has a much
> smaller cross section for thermal neutrons, reacts with
> an energetic neutron to produce another neutron as well
> as helium-4 and tritium.
>
> The natural isotope
> of beryllium (.sub.4 Be.sup.9) interacts with energetic
> neutrons to produce helium and tritium. In one reaction
> chain, beryllium produces two neutrons and two helium-4
> nucleii for every beryllium nucleus interacting with a
> neutron. In a second chain, the reaction produces
> helium-4 and tritium and a net gain in energy as well,
> via an intermediate stage in which lithium-6 is
> produced.
>
> In interactions with
> neutrons released by fusion reactions, both lithium and
> beryllium thus produce helium-4 and tritium as end
> products. The helium-4 is an inert gas that helps
> moderate energetic neutrons and the tritium can be used
> directly as fuel in the CFR or removed for use in other
> fusion reactors. Hence a host liquid of lithium or
> beryllium would provide a regenerative system that
> re-seeds itself with tritium.
>
> The relatively high
> vapor pressure of beryllium above its melting point and
> its small value of .DELTA.K. mitigate against its use as
> a host liquid alone, but alloys of lithium and beryllium
> have several advantages that neither lithium or
> beryllium alone possesses. Such alloys containing
> hydrogen isotopes would be very effective in slowing
> down and capturing energetic neutrons released in fusion
> reactions. In such reactions, helium-4 and tritium and
> energy would be produced.
>
> The phase diagram for
> Li-Be alloys does not seem to have been determined.
> However, the chemical similarity between beryllium and
> aluminum makes it probable that Li-Be alloys behave much
> as Li-Al alloys. Based on the phase diagram for Li-Al,
> it is anticipated that the addition of beryllium to
> liquid lithium would gradually increase the melting
> point and the sound speed of the alloy. The great
> advantage of such an alloy would be this increase in the
> speed of sound as compared to that of lithium alone. At
> the same time, the vapor pressure of beryllium at such
> temperatures would be very low compared to that of
> lithium alone. Solid beryllium has a sound speed of
> 1.24.times.10.sup.4 meters sec.sup.-1 while liquid
> lithium has a sound speed of 4.2.times.10.sup.3 meters
> sec.sup.-1 at 1000 K. Thus the sound speed of a liquid
> Li-Be alloy at that temperature should be much higher
> than that of Li alone.
>
> The liquid metals
> used in a CFR, therefore, can be regarded as falling
> into three categories:
>
> a. Alpha-metals in
> which H-isotopes dissolve readily and with which
> H-isotopes form stable compounds over at least part of
> the ambient or operating temperature of interest. The
> most important metal of this type is lithium, either in
> the natural isotopic mixture of lithium-6 (.sub.3
> Li.sup.6) and lithium-7 (.sub.3 Li.sup.7) or as one of
> those isotopes alone, or as lithium-7 enriched with
> lithium-6.
>
> b. Beta-metals in
> which H-isotopes dissolve readily but with which they do
> not form stable compounds over the operating temperature
> of interest. The most important metals of this type are
> beryllium and aluminum.
>
> c. Gamma metals in
> which H-isotopes neither dissolve readily nor with which
> they form stable compounds in the operating temperature
> of interest. Tin, thallium and indium are examples of
> such metals.
>
> In a Type I CFR the
> host metal is usually normal lithium, lithium-6,
> lithium-7, beryllium or an alloy of these light metals.
> In a Type II CFR, the host metal is, usually, tin,
> thallium, indium or aluminum.
>
> DISTRIBUTION OF
> HYDROGEN ISOTOPES
>
> The hydrogen isotopes
> are distributed in the host liquid either as dissolved
> gas, as hydrides, or as small bubbles or "seeds". Seeds
> containing H-isotopes and vapor of the host metal may be
> a random distribution of bubbles of very small size
> (with an average equivalent radius of the order of
> 10.sup.-5 to 10.sup.-4 cm.) or a carefully generated set
> of bubbles of much larger size. Helium may also be
> included as the third constituent of the content of a
> seed.
>
> In an alpha metal
> such as lithium, at a given ambient temperature,
> .theta.\*, the mole fraction, Y.sub.H, of H-isotopes
> dispersed in the liquid (either dissolved or as hydrides
> or stabilized as a gas) is a function of the
> "dissociation pressure" p.sub.H \*. Thus control of
> p.sub.H \* above a surface of the liquid controls the
> amount of gas, Y.sub.H, dispersed in the liquid. It is
> assumed that the ambient temperature is higher than the
> melting point of any hydrides that may form. Because
> H-isotopes both dissolve in and combine chemically with
> alpha-metals, the gas in a bubble tends to be at its
> equilibrium pressure, p.sub.H \*, which usually is much
> less than the ambient pressure in the liquid. As a
> result the only bubbles in an alpha liquid that persist
> in time are very small ones that stabilize on minute
> inhomogeneities such as fragments of hydrides. In such a
> host liquid, the amount of gas in a growing or
> contracting bubble at any time has little relation to
> the amount of gas that was in the original seed from
> which it grew.
>
> When an alpha-metal
> such as lithium is used as the host liquid, there is one
> simple procedure by which seeding of the liquid may be
> accomplished. An atmosphere of H-isotopes is maintained
> over a surface of the host liquid at the dissociation
> pressure, p.sub.H \*, corresponding to the mole fraction,
> Y.sub.H, specified for the CFR at the specified ambient
> temperature, .theta.\*. The H-isotopes are absorbed,
> either in dissolved form or as hydrides. Small seeds of
> H-isotopes will nucleate on existing inhomogeneities in
> the liquid. As a result, there will be a stable
> distribution of very small seeds with some equilibrium
> size (of the order of 10.sup.-5 cm. to 10.sup.-4 cm. in
> equivalent radius). A more rapid dispersion would be
> effected by allowing the liquid metal to be mixed
> mechanically with the H-isotopes under the same
> conditions.
>
> The net gain of
> energy produced by a CFR is maximized when the fuel used
> is a mixture of deuterium and tritium distributed
> through a host liquid of lithium or of a Li-Be alloy. In
> one mode of operation, deuterium is introduced into the
> host liquid at a surface and diffuses into the
> cavitation zone. The required inventory of tritium is
> then produced in the cavitation zone by fusion of
> deuterium nuclei alone. A specified mole fraction,
> Y.sub.d, of deuterium is maintained in the host liquid
> by the appropriate dissociation pressure, p.sub.d \*,
> over a surface and the specified mole fraction, Y.sub.t,
> of tritium maintained by the fusion and neutron
> reactions that produce tritium. Thus only deuterium, the
> naturally occuring isotope of hydrogen, need be supplied
> to the CFR from an external source for fuel, both during
> the start-up phase and the steady-state operation of the
> CFR.
>
> In another mode of
> operation, tritium required in the start-up phase is
> introduced into the host liquid containing lithium-6,
> lithium-7, beryllium or helium-3 by irradiating the host
> liquid with neutrons from an external source. Deuterium
> is introduced into the host liquid at a surface (as
> above) and diffuses into the cavitation zone where
> tritium is being generated by neutrons. A specified mole
> fraction, Y.sub.d, of deuterium is maintained in the
> host liquid by the appropriate pressure, p.sub.d \*, over
> a surface and the initial inventory of tritium
> maintained by fusion and neutrons reactions that
> produces tritium.
>
> As will be noted
> later, the mole fraction of H-isotopes maintained in a
> CFR's host liquid has a critical effect on operation of
> a CFR using an alpha-metal such as lithium.
>
> In gamma metals, it
> is possible to use much larger seeds of H-isotopes which
> can be introduced in a variety of fashions. While in
> alpha-metal such as lithium, the average seed will be a
> bubble having an equivalent radius of 10.sup.-5 cm. to
> 10.sup.-4 cm., seeds of the order of 10.sup.-3 cm. to
> 10.sup.-2 cm. will be used in a gamma-metal liquid. The
> expected maximum radius, R.sub.o \*, of a bubble will be
> 500 to 10,000 times larger than the initial radius,
> R.sub.n \*, of a seed. Hence the order of magnitude of
> R.sub.o \* will change with the expansion ratio, R.sub.0
> \*/R.sub.n \*, as follows:
>
> \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
> Expansion
> ratio = 500 1000 10,000
> \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ R.sub.n \* (cm)
> R.sub.o \* (cm) R.sub.o \* (cm) R.sub.o \* (cm) 10.sup.-5 5
> .times. 10.sup.-3 10.sup.-2 10.sup.-1 10.sup.-4 5
> .times. 10.sup.-2 10.sup.-1 1 10.sup.-3 5 .times.
> 10.sup.-1 1 10 10.sup.-2 5 .times. 10.sup.0 10 10.sup.2
> \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
>
> The use of large
> bubbles as seeds is advantageous in a Type II CFR
> because the amount of H-isotopes contained in a seed
> increases as R.sub.n \*.sup.3 so that a seed with R.sub.n
> \*=10.sup.-2 cm. has 10.sup.9 more H-nucleii than a seed
> of 10.sup.-5 cm. In a gamma liquid, the H-isotopes
> neither dissolve or react readily with the host liquid
> so that the amount of gas in a seed is essentially that
> in the bubble at the start of the collapse phase.
> However, the use of large bubbles as seeds require that
> the cavitation zone be in a zero-gravity field.
>
> When a distribution
> of such large seeds are introduced in a gamma-metal
> liquid in a zero gravity field, the distribution will be
> relatively stable in space and time. In the absence of
> gravity, bubbles will not rise to the surface nor
> disappear rapidly through diffusion.
>
> When beta-metals are
> used as host liquids, the behavior of gas bubbles is
> much the same as in alpha metals except for the absence
> of hydrides in the host liquid. Alloys of Li-Be will
> fall in the alpha-metal category.
>
> In addition to the
> methods described above for seeding CFR using
> alpha-metals as the host liquid, the following metods
> for seeding a host liquid may be employed:
>
> 1. Small seeds of
> H-isotopes in a beta-metal may be caused to grow into
> seeds of a specified size through the process of
> rectified diffusion brought about through an auxiliary
> acoustic field that may be independent of the
> hereinafter described primary field that causes bubbles
> to grow to many times their initial size.
>
> 2. A metal that
> resists attack by the host liquid may be caused to
> absorb H-isotopes in appreciable quantities and then
> inserted into the wall of the reaction chamber or into
> the liquid at a surface other than a wall. The inner
> face of this insert will then be caused to release seeds
> into the host liquid by a variety of methods (e.g., by a
> change of pressure at the external surface of the
> insert). The H-isotopes injected into the host liquid
> would then be replenished in the solid insert by
> additional gas absorbed at its outer surface.
>
> 3. A metal that
> resists attack by the host liquid may be caused to
> absorb H-isotopes in appreciable quantities and then
> inserted into the host liquid as an electrode. A
> positive voltage applied to the electrode would then
> evolve seeds of H-isotopes of controllable size. The
> size of the seeds would be a function of the voltage
> that is applied.
>
> 4. Small particles of
> controlled size made up of compounds of a metal and
> H-isotopes are distributed through the host liquid and
> then caused to dissociate into the metal and seeds of
> H-isotopes by changing the ambient temperature of the
> host liquid. The size distribution of the seeds would be
> determined by the size distribution of the particles in
> a gamma-metal but not in an alpha metal.
>
> 5. Small particles of
> controlled size containing H-isotopes as dissolved or
> absorbed gases are distributed in the host liquid and
> then caused to evolve known amounts of these gases when
> the particles dissolve or the ambient pressure and
> pressure are changed.
>
> 6. Simple mechanical
> agitation of the host liquid (by a stream of H-isotopes
> through the liquid, for example) in the presence of
> H-isotopes would produce a random distribution of seeds
> whose average size in general would be small except in a
> gamma-metal in a zero-gravity field. In general, large
> bubbles would tend to dissolve away or rise out of the
> host liquid while bubbles of the order of 10.sup.-4 cm.
> radius or less would move about in a random fashion
> because of brownian motion if stabilized against
> diffusion.
>
> OPERATING TEMPERATURE
>
> The specification of
> an operating temperature, .theta..sub.n \*, depends on
> the type of cavitation fusion reactor. Viewed as part of
> a thermodynamic system, the host liquid is simply a
> reservoir from which heat is transferred to a second,
> external reservoir. The fraction of energy in the second
> reservoir available for conversion to useful work
> increases when its temperature increases. Because the
> fusion-generated heat is transferred to the external
> reservoir by conduction, this thermodynamic condition
> requires that the host liquid be operated at as high a
> temperature as possible consistent with other
> constraints.
>
> There are several
> constraints that effectively place an upper limit on the
> ambient (or operating) temperature. One is the corrosion
> of the reaction chamber by the liquid metal used as the
> host liquid. The attack by a liquid metal on such
> surfaces is accelerated by an increase in temperature
> and the host metal will become increasingly contaminated
> by material from the reactor surfaces. Another
> constraint is the vapor pressure, p.sub.v \*, of the host
> liquid, which is a rapidly increasing function of the
> temperature. The vapor pressure in a bubble may have a
> disproportionate effect on the dynamics of bubbles; a
> high vapor pressure may moderate the collapse of a
> bubble and a large mole fraction of vapor atoms in the
> bubble may impede the operation of both Type I and Type
> II reactors.
>
> In any CFR, both the
> host liquid and the contents of a bubble will remain at
> the ambient temperature, .theta..sub.n \*, during all of
> the expansion phase and most of the contraction phase.
> In the final stage of collapse, the bubble and a thin
> shell of liquid around it are compressed adiabatically
> and the terminal, constant values of the entropy in the
> bubble and in the liquid shell are to a large extent
> determined by the ambient temperature.
>
> In a Type I CFR, a
> major design objective is to achieve as high a maximum
> pressure as possible in the liquid at the bubble
> interface on collapse. This objective requires that the
> terminal, constant value of the entropy, S.sub.c \*, of
> the gas and vapor in the bubble be minimized and hence a
> low ambient, or operating, temperature be chosen. In a
> Type I CFR, the objective of a high maximum pressure on
> collapse also necessitates that the amount of H-isotopes
> and vapor in the bubble be minimized when the radius
> approaches its minimum value, R.sub.m \*. For given mole
> fractions, Y.sub.d and Y.sub.t, of deuterium and tritium
> in the host liquid, the equilibrium "dissociation
> pressure", p.sub.H \*, of the H-isotopes is a function of
> the ambient temperature when the host metal is an
> alpha-metal. A choice of a low ambient temperature
> minimizes both p.sub.H \* and p.sub.v \* and hence the
> amount of H-isotopes and vapor in the bubble on
> collapse.
>
> In a Type I CFR,
> generation of thermonuclear fusion in a thin shell
> surrounding the collapsed bubble is not a critical
> function of the terminal, constant value of the entropy,
> S.sub.L \*, in the liquid shell. Hence placing some upper
> limit on the operating temperature does not in itself
> mitigate against the generation of very high
> temperatures in the liquid on collapse of a bubble. In a
> Type I reactor, the temperature in the liquid shell is
> multiplied by the very intense shock wave radiated by
> the bubble interface near its minimum radius and the
> condition for fusion is reached by a sequence of
> adiabatic compression of the liquid followed by a second
> compression by the shock wave.
>
> However, there is a
> lower limit on the ambient (or operating) temperature
> when the host liquid is an alpha-metal. Then a lower
> limit on the temperature is established by the
> requirement that it be greater than the melting point of
> any solid hydride that can form. In lithium where LiH
> melts at 975 K. (or even less depending on the fraction
> of H-isotopes present) the host metal would have a vapor
> pressure of approximately 15 mm Hg at 1200 K. At an
> operating temperature of 1000 K. to 1200 K., the vapor
> pressure would still be low and there still would be
> present in the liquid minute fragments of the hydrides
> which would serve as nucleation sites for seeds of
> H-isotopes.
>
> Furthermore, in a
> Type I CFR using lithium, the range of 1000 K. to 1200
> K. is high enough to cause a terminal value of S.sub.c \*
> at which fusion of deuterium alone can occur in the
> start-up phase.
>
> In general, a high
> vapor pressure within a bubble is undesirable for the
> reasons stated above. Lithium is an exception to this
> general design criterion. At low concentrations, lithium
> atoms in a mixture of H-isotopes will markedly reduce
> the thermal conductivity of the gas-vapor mixture and
> hence assist in bringing about adiabatic compression of
> the bubble's contents at an earlier stage of motion.
> Lithium nuclei in a mixture of H-isotopes may serve as a
> fuel in thermonuclear reactions with those isotopes.
> While in most liquids, it is desirable to keep the vapor
> pressure and hence the ambient temperature low, the
> restriction is not critical for lithium at temperatures
> at or below 1200 K.
>
> In a Type II CFR, a
> major design objective is to achieve the highest
> possible temperature within a collapsed bubble. The
> final temperature reached in the adiabatic compression
> of a bubble is an exponential function of the terminal,
> constant value of the entropy. This statement is exact
> for an ideal gas and an approximate one for non-ideal
> gases. This requirement means that the entropy, S.sub.c
> \*, of the contents should be as large as possible during
> the adiabatic compression of a bubble in a Type II CFR.
> If the host metal is tin, the vapor pressure is
> 1.33.times.10.sup.-3 mm Hg at 1400 K. Hence the
> operating temperature in a Type II CFR may be as high as
> 1400 K. or 1500 K. in order to achieve a large value of
> S.sub.c \* in the final stage of collapse without having
> an undesirably high vapor pressure.
>
> In a Type II CFR, a
> large value of O.sub.n \* combined with a low value of
> p.sub.v \* means that less mechanical energy is used in
> dissociating and then ionizing the gas and a larger
> share is then used in heating the ionized gas to high
> temperatures. The fewer heavy vapor atoms that are
> present, the more rapidly will the process of ionizing
> the H-isotopes will be completed.
>
> OPERATING PRESSURE
>
> The static, operating
> (or ambient) pressure, p.sub.ln \*, of a CFR is the
> pressure that exists in the host liquid independently of
> a time-varying pressure, p.sub.A \*(t). The total
> pressure in the cavitation zone of the host liquid is
> the sum of p.sub.ln \* and p.sub.A \*(t). There are
> several ways in which this parameter may be used to
> control the operation of a CFR.
>
> The static pressure
> affords an alternative way in which to apply a positive
> pressure of specified magnitude to a bubble that has
> expanded to a maximum radius, R.sub.o \*, and starts to
> contract. In some modes of operation, it may be
> preferable to transfer mechanical energy to the
> collapsing bubble via the static, ambient pressure than
> by means of an acoustic pressure. For example, when the
> applied pressure field consists solely of a negative
> pulse, causing a seed to expand into a much larger
> bubble, the required positive pressure at the start of
> collapse may be supplied by the ambient pressure.
> However, it is important to point out that the speed of
> collapse depends almost solely on W.sub.m \*, the total
> mechanical work done on the bubble by the total
> pressure. The ambient pressure, p.sub.ln \*, may be 1 bar
> or 100 bars, but the speed of collapse for a given
> compression ratio, R.sub.o \*/R\*, is controlled by
> W.sub.m \* and not by p.sub.ln \*.
>
> One effect of
> p.sub.ln \* is to change the amount of H-isotopes
> contained in a bubble with a specified equivalent
> radius, R.sub.n \*. Thus, for R.sub.n \* =10.sup.-3 cm., a
> bubble would contain 50 times more gas when p.sub.ln \*
> =100 bars than when p.sub.ln \* =1 bar. In a Type II CRF,
> this multiplication of H-nuclei available in a large
> seed is an important factor in energy gain and neutron
> production.
>
> There are several
> factors that place an upper limit on the ambient
> pressure in a CFR. Diffusivity and solubility of
> H-isotopes in metals such as W, Mo, Ti and Zr (that may
> be used as walls of the reaction chamber) increase
> rapidly with pressure. Hence the normal specification of
> p.sub.ln \* will be that due to hydrostatic pressure plus
> the dissociation pressure, p.sub.H \*, of the H-isotopes
> present in order to assist in containment of tritium
> within the reaction chamber.
>
> Large negative and
> positive pressures p.sub.A \*(t) must be established in
> the cavitation zone of any CFR. These pressure fields
> may be generated in a variety of ways and devices.
> However, as noted above, the most important quantity
> associated with the interaction of a bubble with such a
> field is the amount of mechanical energy transferred to
> the bubble during its expansion from a seed and its
> subsequent collapse. The detailed specification of the
> acoustic field and the manner in which it is generated
> are less important than its ability to transfer a given
> amount of energy to the bubble.
>
> There is, however,
> one important time constraint on the cycle of negative
> and positive pressure created in the CFR. At the start
> of such a cycle, the pressure falls to some negative
> minimum and then rises back to zero. This time interval
> in which the pressure p.sub.A \*(t) is negative must be
> long enough in duration for the seed to grow to its
> maximum size before a positive pressure is applied. A
> typical example is a seed whose initial radius, R.sub.n
> \*, is 2.times.10.sup.-5 cm. As a result of an applied
> negative pressure of -50 bars, the seed grows into a
> bubble whose maximum radius, R.sub.o \*, is
> 2.7.times.10.sup.-1 cm. during a time interval of
> 1.8.times.10.sup.-4 sec. Under an applied positive
> pressure of +50 bars, the bubble collapses to a minimum
> size in 1.7.times.10.sup.-4 sec. If the acoustic
> pressure field in this example were time-harmonic (or
> sinusoidal), the period would need to be at least
> 3.6.times.10.sup.-4 sec. and the frequency not greater
> than 2.8.times.10.sup.3 Hz. Otherwise, the expansion
> ratio of the bubble would be much less and the collapse
> much less violent. That is, if the frequency were
> higher, the bubble would not reach the maximum radius of
> 2.7.times.10.sup.-1 before it started to contract under
> the positive pressure.
>
> The volume of the
> host liquid occupied by the cavitation zone, the number
> of cavitation events taking place during one pressure
> cycle and the repetition rate of such events have
> important roles in determining the power output of a
> CFR. The economic utility of a CFR increases when:
>
> 1. In one pressure
> cycle, thermonuclear fusion is brought about in many
> bubbles.
>
> 2. The pressure cycle
> is short enough that the expansion-collapse cycle of
> bubbles occurs many times in a second.
>
> The cavitation zone
> must be large enough so that there is no interaction
> between bubbles as they expand and collapse during a
> pressure cycle. If the maximum radii of the bubbles were
> 0.1 cm. on an average, then a sphere with a radius of 2
> cm. would be a cavitation zone in which 10 bubbles could
> grow and collapse without undue interaction when the
> applied pressure amplitudes are large (say, of the order
> of 100 bars).
>
> If the repetition
> rate of the acoustic field is 2000 Hz and the number of
> bubbles creating thermonuclear fusion is 10 in any
> cycle, then there would be 2.times.10.sup.4 cavitation
> events in the cavitation zone specified above in each
> second. If each event yields 10 Joules, the power
> generated in the reactor is 200 kilowatts. This simple
> calculation shows the premium placed on the use of small
> bubbles. The number of bubbles that can be created in a
> cavitation zone at any given times obviously may be
> increased with a decrease in the average maximum radius,
> R.sub.o \*, of the bubbles, and a decrease in R.sub.o \*
> permits an increase in the repetition rate.
>
> This conclusion
> favors the use of a Type I CFR. The operation of a Type
> II CFR with large seeds must compensate for this
> decrease in the possible number of cavitation events per
> second. This compensation can be done through an
> increase in the fuel nuclei contained in each bubble.
> However, when a Type II CFR is operated as a device for
> producing tritium rather than energy, this condition is
> not so important.
>
> The cavitation zone
> in a reactor is determined by the geometry of the
> acoustic field. A pressure field in which the required
> pressure amplitudes occur only in a very small volume
> decreases the power output of a CFR by decreasing the
> number of cavitation events per pressure cycle.
>
> The applied pressure
> field may be generated in several ways. Two important
> classes are:
>
> 1. Resonant systems
>
> 2. Non-resonant
> systems.
>
> Resonant systems
> designed around elements such as resonant cylinders,
> resonant spheres and Helmholtz resonators are typically
> simple devices useful in some modes of operation of a
> Type II CFR in which a high repetition rate is not
> required. The drawback on their use is that the
> operation of such resonant systems normally requires the
> host liquid be homogeneous. Once a bubble has grown from
> a seed, the condition for resonance has been destroyed
> until all bubbles have expanded to their maximum radii,
> collapsed and effectively vanished. When a resonant
> device is used to produce a required negative pressure
> (say, -50 bars), the required positive pressure to be
> applied during collapse can be supplied by using a
> static, ambient pressure, p.sub.ln \*, of appropriate
> magnitude. The cycle of expansion and collapse would be
> repeated when the condition for resonance is
> reestablished.
>
> Non-resonant systems
> are used to establish pressure fields that are either
> harmonic in time (sinusoidal) or are pulse like. Thus:
>
> (a) Time harmonic
> fields are established by tranducers (external to the
> chamber) that continuously maintain a required time
> sequence and positive pressure amplitudes in the
> cavitation zone.
>
> (b) Pulse-like fields
> are alternating pulses of negative and positive
> pressures generated, for example, by shock excitation of
> a surface in contact with the host liquid, either
> directly or via "horns".
>
> Both kinds of
> non-resonant systems may be focussed by means of
> acoustic lenses or by reflection from a curved surface
> at which there is a large change in the specific
> acoustic impedance. When a negative pulse of appropriate
> amplitude is generated in the host liquid, the
> corresponding positive pulse may be generated by
> reflection of the negative pulse from a surface whose
> specific acoustic impedance is very low compared with
> that of the host liquid (i.e., from the free surface of
> the host liquid). The amplitude of the positive pulse is
> controlled by specification of the ambient pressure,
> which increases the total pressure on the collapsing
> bubble to the required value.
>
> When a bubble has
> reached a maximum radius very much larger than its
> initial, equivalent radius, the collapse consists of two
> phases or stages. In the first phase the contents of the
> bubble remain at the ambient or operating temperature of
> the host liquid. In the second phase the increasing
> speed of collapse brings about a transition to an
> adiabatic compression of the bubble contents and of a
> thin shell of liquid surrounding the bubble. The
> positive pressure applied to a collapsing bubble causes
> this transition to occur at a larger radius than would
> occur in its absence, and also causes the bubble to
> contract to a smaller minimum radius. The smaller the
> minimum radius the greater are the maximum temperatures
> and pressures that will be reached in the bubble and in
> the liquid.
>
> At, or near, the
> minimum radius, a very intense shock wave is radiated by
> the bubble. The crucial difference between the design of
> a Type I CFR and a Type II CFR is the relative
> importance in each of the adiabatic compression of a
> bubble's contents and the very high pressures and
> temperatures created in the host liquid by the intense
> shock wave. A controlling factor during a cavitation
> event is the amount of work done on a bubble by the
> applied pressure field. There are many ways in which the
> parameters of the applied pressure field (duration,
> period, amplitude) may be chosen, but they are
> effectively equivalent if the work done on a bubble is
> the same.
>
> STABILITY OF THE
> BUBBLE INTERFACE
>
> The generation of
> high pressures and temperatures produced by a collapsing
> bubble in the host liquid depends strongly on whether or
> not the interface of the bubble remains spherical during
> most of the collapse. When the bubble is expanding, the
> interface is stable in shape, but when the acceleration
> is inward the interface is dynamically unstable against
> any small perturbation of the spherical interface caused
> by asymmetrical forces. However, in the very final stage
> of collapse, the acceleration is again outward and the
> interface is again stable.
>
> The gravitational
> field of the earth is an asymmetrical force that tends
> to create perturbations in a bubble's interface and this
> external force may cause the spherical interface of
> bubbles to deform during collapse. A zero-gravity field
> in which such distortions of the initial spherical shape
> do not occur is found in an orbiting space vehicle. On
> the surface of the earth a similar cancellation of the
> earth's gravitional field is produced in a properly
> designed static, inhomogeneous magnetic field. Both the
> contents of the bubble and the host metals are either
> diamagnetic or paramagnetic and, as a consequence, a
> magnetic field may be so designed that in the cavitation
> zone of the host liquid the vertical force per unit area
> (magnetic pressure) exerted by the magnetic field on the
> surface of the bubble cancels the force per unit area
> (gravitational pressure) exerted on the bubble by the
> gravitional field.
>
> A static magnetic
> field, B\*, readily penetrates a liquid metal and in this
> invention an inhomogeneous magnetic field, similar to
> those generated in conventional magnets, is used to
> create an approximately zero-gravity field in the
> cavitation zone of a CFR.
>
> A horizontal magnetic
> field, B\*, is established in the host liquid such that
> its strength falls off rapidly along a vertical axis
> from its specified maximum, B.sub.o \*. Below the
> maximum, the gradient of the field is positive (with
> positive distance upward) and above the maximum the
> gradient is negative.
>
> At any point in the
> host liquid, the force due to gravity may be cancelled
> in the cavitation zone by an upward force due to a
> magnetic field, which can be calculated to show, that
> for a given example, B.sub.o \* must be 44 kilogauss in
> the absence of a bubble and 30 kilogauss in the presence
> of an H-isotope bubble. Hence, in this example, a value
> of B.sub.o \* of the order of 30-44 kilogauss would
> effectively cancel the effect of gravity in the
> cavitation zone.
>
> The crucial statement
> is that, by proper design of an inhomogeneous magnetic
> field, there will be a region in the host liquid where
> any value of B.sub.o \*, equal to or less that the value
> specified for cancellation of gravity, will also help
> inhibit the growth of an instability of the bubble
> interface. Properly designed (as described hereinafter)
> an inhomogeneous magnetic field counteracts the effect
> of gravity and creates a "zero-gravity" field in the
> cavitation zone of the host liquid.
>
> Normally, large seeds
> placed in a liquid rapidly float to the surface and
> disappear from the cavitation zone. However, the zero
> gravity field used in a CFR will cause such seeds to
> remain in the cavitation zone where they are introduced
> or generated. Thus such seeds remain at their site of
> formation and in a Type II CFR do not vanish through
> diffusion of the H-isotopes into the liquid metal.
> Similarly, in a Type I CFR a zero-gravity field causes
> seeds of tritium generated by fusion to remain within
> the cavitation zone.
>
> CHAMBER REACTIONS
>
> All energy released
> in a CFR, whether electromagnetic or carried by charged
> particles or neutrons, is absorbed in the host liquid or
> in a liquid metal "blanket" surrounding the reaction
> chamber in which fusion takes place. The nuclear
> reactions that yield this useful energy at temperatures
> attainable through operation of a CFR are:
>
> The energy released
> in each reaction is given in Mev (million electron
> volts).
>
> Neutrons released by
> cavitation fusion give up their energy to the host
> liquid, to a moderator surrounding the host liquid, or
> to the liquid metal blanket until the neutrons have
> slowed down to speeds at which they interact with
> lithium or beryllium nuclei and in so doing create
> tritium and energy through the following reactions:
>
> When the host liquid
> is lithium or beryllium, or a mixture of the two metals,
> and hydrogen isotopes are dispersed in the host liquid,
> the fusion reactions have as end products only helium
> and hydrogen isotopes and of these the only radioactive
> by-product is tritium, which may be contained within the
> reactor and used as fuel. In the fusion reaction
> involving .sub.1 H.sup.1 and .sub.3 Li.sup.7, the only
> reaction product is helium-4 and there are no
> radioactive by-products. These elements --hydrogen,
> helium, lithium and beryllium--are the most effective
> moderators of fast neutrons produced in fusion
> reactions. Both lithium-6 and helium-3 (produced in
> several fusion reactions) have large capture cross
> sections for neutrons that have thus been slowed to
> thermal or threshold energies.
>
> A primary object of
> this invention, therefore, is to provide a novel method
> of utilizing the phenomenon of cavitation of a liquid
> metal to produce a thermonuclear reaction.
>
> Another object of
> this invention is to provide a novel method of effecting
> thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen isotopes in a liquid
> host metal by inducing a cavitation effect in the metal.
>
> A further object of
> this invention is to provide a novel cavitation fusion
> reactor for carrying out the reaction taught by this
> invention, and for utilizing the by-products resulting
> from such reaction.
>
> Still another object
> of this invention is to provide a reactor of the type
> described which is capable of functioning in a
> regenerative manner to generate tritium which can be
> used as fuel for the reactor.
>
> A further object of
> this invention is to provide a novel cavitation fusion
> reactor which uses metal acoustical horns both for
> transmitting energy to the liquid metal in the reactor
> chamber and to conduct fusion heat from the chamber to a
> heat exchanger disposed externally of the chamber.
>
> Other objects of the
> invention will be apparent hereinafter from the
> specification and from the appended claims, particularly
> when considered in conjunction with the accompanying
> drawings.
>
> In the drawings:
>
> FIG. 1 is a schematic
> fragmentary sectional view taken through the center of a
> Type I CFR, which is made according to one embodiment of
> this invention;
>
> ![](fig1.jpg)
>
> FIG. 2 is a
> fragmentary sectional view of part of a modified form of
> the CFR shown in SFIG. 1, and illustrating an
> alternative form of acoustical horn which may be
> employed in the CFR; and
>
> FIG. 3 is a
> schematic, fragmentary sectional view taken through the
> center of a Type II CFR, which is made according to
> another embodiment of this invention.
>
> ![](fig3.jpg)
>
> TYPE I CFR
>
> Referring now to the
> drawings by numerals of reference, and first to FIG. 1,
> 10 denotes generally a Type I CFR comprising an inner
> chamber II adapted to contain a host liquid, such as,
> for example, lithium or an alloy of lithium and
> beryllium. Chamber 11 is formed by a housing 12 made
> from a refractory metal such as tungsten, titanium,
> molybdenum, rhenium or alloys thereof. In the embodiment
> illustrated housing 12 is shown to be generally
> cylindrical in configuration, but it is to be understood
> that its shape can be altered (e.g. to be made
> spherical) without departing from this invention.
> Moreover, although specific refractory materials have
> been suggested, it is to be understood also that
> refractory metals in Groups IV B, VB and VIIB of the
> periodic table may also be used provided that the metal
> used can be easily penetrated by a static magnetic field
> for reasons noted hereinafter.
>
> Housing 12 is
> surrounded by a neutron and tritium shield 21, which is
> similar in configuration to, but larger than, the
> housing 12. (See Hansborough, L. D., Tritium Inventories
> and Leakage: A Review of Some Theoretical
> Considerations, pg. 92 in AEC Symposium Series No. 31,
> The Technology of Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion
> Experiments And The Engineering Aspects of Fusion
> Reactors; and Stickney, R. E., Diffusion and Permeation
> of Hydrogen Isotopes in Fusion Reactors: A Survey, pg.
> 241 in The Chemistry of Fusion Technology (D. M. Gruen,
> ed.) Plenum Press, 1972). The annular space 22 between
> housing 12 and shield 21 is adapted to be filled with
> helium.
>
> Six, solid acoustic
> horns 30, which are generally truncated-conical in
> configuration, are used in the embodiment illustrated in
> order to supply acoustic energy to chamber 11 and to
> remove fusion heat from the host liquid. Two of the
> horns project into opposite ends of the chamber 11
> coaxially thereof, and the other four project into the
> chamber medially of its ends, and at 90.degree.
> intervals about its axis.
>
> Each horn 30 is made
> of tungsten or another suitable refractory metal, which
> possesses both high tensile strength and a large value
> of thermal diffusivity, and is mounted intermediate its
> ends in registering openings 14 and 24 in the adjacent
> walls of housing 12 and shield 21, respectively, so that
> the tip or discharge ends 32 of the horns project
> equidistantly into chamber 11. Two spaced, external
> flanges 33 and 34, which are located on each horn at its
> velocity nodes so that no motion will be imparted to the
> flanges, are secured to the outer surfaces of the
> associated walls of housing 12 and shield 21 around the
> openings 14 and 24, respectively, so that these openings
> are effectively sealed to prevent any leakage between
> chamber 11 the surrounding space 22 between housing 12
> and shield 21.
>
> Rearwardly of its
> flange 34 each horn 30 has its outer end enclosed in a
> heat exchanger housing 36, having an inlet 37 connected
> to a supply of heat exchange fluid, and an outlet 38
> connected to a device which is to receive the heat
> energy drawn from the reaction that takes place in
> chamber 11. Also mounted on the outer end of each horn
> 30 within the associated exchanges housing 36 is a
> conventional transducer 39, which is operable in a known
> manner to supply mechanical energy to the associated
> horn 30. As shown more clearly in FIG. 1, the outer end
> of each horn 30 and its associated transducer 39 are
> enclosed within a heat transfer housing 36, so that any
> heat which is generated in the horn as the result of a
> fusion reaction in chamber 11 will be transmitted
> through the horn and transducer 39 to the fluid that
> circulates in the associated heat exchange housing 36.
>
> Also as illustrated
> in FIG. 1, the six horns (only five of which are
> illustrated) are positioned to form three pairs of
> coaxially disposed horns, with each pair having its axis
> lying in one of three different planes which intersect
> one another at right angles. Assuming that the outer
> surface of each horn 30 is S.sub.o and the inner
> surfaces S.sub.i, the conical taper of the horn causes a
> broad beam of intensity I.sub.O to change into a
> narrower beam of intensity I.sub.i =I.sub.O (S.sub.O
> /S.sub.i). The particle velocity of the narrow beam
> radiated into the chamber 11 increases as the square
> root of the ratio S.sub.O /S.sub.i. Therefore a decrease
> in the radius of the horn by a factor of 4 increases the
> intensity by a factor 16 and the particle velocity by a
> factor of 2. The pressure in the beam that is radiated
> from the inner end of each horn increases in the same
> ratio as the particle velocity--i.e., by a factor of 2.
> Consequently with the arrangement as illustrated in FIG.
> 1, when each horn increases the pressure by a factor of
> 2, the six horns increase the total pressure in the
> cavitation zone (the volume in chamber 11 where the
> beams from the horns intersect) by a factor of 12. Thus
> a pressure of 10 bars at S.sub.O of each horn becomes a
> pressure of 120 in the cavitation zone.
>
> Instead of using six
> transducers 39 as described above, it would be possible
> to use an array of three transducers, so arranged that
> there is a reflecting acoustical mirror opposite each
> inner surface of a horn 30. Such as arrangement will
> concentrate the acoustical energy in the cavitational
> zone as before, but the design decreases the number of
> holes that must be made in the walls of the housing 12
> defining the chamber 11. Refractory metals such as
> tungsten make effective mirrors because their
> characteristic acoustic impedances are 30 times greater
> than that of lithium at 1000.degree. K. and the pressure
> reflection coefficient of such a mirror would be of
> 0.94.
>
> Although solid horns
> 30 have been specified in FIG. 1 as a means of
> transferring acoustical energy in the reaction chamber
> 11, and to extract heat from the chamber, this dual
> function could also be performed, as desired, by a
> modified acoustical horn of the type denoted at 40 in
> FIG. 2. Each such horn 40 may comprise a bundle 41 of
> metal fibers made of a refractory metal such as
> tungsten, and enclosed or encased within a shield or
> housing 42 made of the same material (tungsten, for
> instance). As in the case of the previous embodiment,
> housing 42 has thereon a pair of external flanges 43 and
> 44, which seat against the outsides of the walls of
> housings 12 and 21 to secure the housing 42 in the
> registering openings in these walls so that the forward
> end of each housing 42 projects into chamber 11. The
> outer end of each housing 42 projects into a heat
> exchange housing 36 through which fluid flows, as in the
> case of the first embodiment, to remove heat which is
> transferred by the horn 40 from chamber 11 to the
> exterior of the shield 21. Also as in the first
> embodiment a transducer 39 is secured to the outer end
> of horn 40 for supplying energy thereto.
>
> The advantage of the
> embodiment shown in FIG. 2 is that the removal of heat
> from the fiber bundle is facilitated by the large
> increase in the surface area in contact with the heat
> transfer fluid. If desired, the external end of the
> fiber bundle 41 may be attached to a solid horn which is
> disposed outside of the chamber 11.
>
> In use of CFR of the
> type denoted at 10 has its chamber 11 approximately
> filled with a host liquid, such as lithium or an alloy
> thereof, to a level denoted at L in FIG. 1, so that the
> tip of the horn 30 which projects downwardly from the
> upper wall of housing 12 is immersed in the host liquid.
> Preferably this host liquid is purified of all gases,
> such as oxygen and nitrogen, before the H-isotopes are
> introduced. The reaction chamber 11 is likewise
> degassed, further helping to reduce corrosion of its
> walls.
>
> Thereafter H-isotopes
> are distributed into the host liquid by feeding
> deuterium through a tubular conduit 50 into the top of
> chamber 11 above the surface L of the liquid host.
> Conduit 50 is connected at one end to a supply of
> deuterium, and at its opposite ends extends through
> registering openings in the shield 21 and the upper wall
> of housing 12.
>
> One mode of operation
> of a Type I CFR requires the introduction only of
> hydrogen (.sub.1 H.sup.1 of h) into the lithium, and the
> fusion reaction is between this isotope and lithium.
> However, in the example described in connection with the
> CFR as illustrated in FIGS. 1 or 2, the mole fraction
> Y.sub.H of hydrogen is taken to be zero initially, and
> the mole fraction of deuterium Y.sub.d, and the mole
> fraction of tritium Y.sub.t, in the steady state are
> taken to be equal, and their sum Y.sub.d +Y.sub.t is
> approximately 0.1. The rate at which the reaction (d,
> t,) occurs in the liquid host is proportional to the
> product Y.sub.d and Y.sub.t, and thus this product
> should be as large as possible without making the liquid
> metal more compressible. The tritium inventory is built
> up in the host liquid by generating tritium from
> deutrium alone in the CFR during the start-up phase.
>
> The concentration of
> deuterium is maintained by the appropriate "dissociation
> pressure" (pd\*) over the surface of the host liquid.
> This pressure is a function of the mole fraction of
> H-isotopes dissolved into lithium and of the operating
> temperature. For a combined mole fraction of 0.1 of
> H-isotopes and the range of operating of temperatures
> specified hereinafter, this pressure would be on the
> order of 50 mm. Hg or less. The initial concentration of
> tritium is renewed by the fusion reactions and by its
> production in neutron caspture by lithium. Also, the
> distribution of seeds in the host liquid will be very
> small bubbles that nucleate on minute inhomogeneities
> such as fragments of the various hydrides that can form
> in the host liquid.
>
> The operating or
> ambient temperature must be greater than the melting
> point of the hydrides that can form and less than about
> 1200 K., so in practice the range of temperature is
> approximately 1000 K. to 1200 K. In order to assist
> nucleation of seeds, the ambient temperature must be
> lowered to the melting point of the hydrides and then
> raised back to the operating temperature. An external
> heat source will initially bring the reaction chamber 11
> to the operating temperature and thereafter the
> temperature is maintained by the heat that is caused
> from fusion.
>
> The operating or
> ambient pressure in chamber 11 is the sum of the
> hydrostatic pressure plus the gas pressure maintained
> above the surface of the host liquid and the vapor
> pressure of the liquid itself. Typically it is on the
> order of 1.0 bar or less.
>
> For proper operation
> a magnetic field that is inhomogeneous in the vertical
> direction (as illustrated in FIG. 1) and uniform in a
> horizontal direction is created in the host liquid by an
> external source.
>
> For an H-isotope
> bubble in liquid lithium, a magnetic field B\* with a
> maximum B.sub.0 \* of the order of 30-44 kilogauss will
> approximately cancel the effect of gravity in the
> cavitation zone. The maximum is positioned above the
> cavitation zone and for the values specified here
> approximate cancellation occurs over a range of 4 cm.,
> if the vertical gradient of the magnetic energy density
> is designed to be constant over that interval and B\*
> becomes negligable outside that range. It is important
> to state that a value of B.sub.0 \* less than that
> specified will still be effective in helping inhibit the
> growth of an instability of the interface. This zero
> gravity field can also be created by the forced
> acceleration of the host liquid as a whole in such a
> manner that the acceleration cancels the effect of
> gravity during the collapse of bubbles. A device such as
> an electromagnetic "shaker" causes the reaction chamber
> 11 to vibrate along a vertical axis. By choosing the
> proper magnitude and frequency of vibration, the shaker
> imparts to the reaction chamber 11 a downward
> acceleration during part of the vibration cycle so that
> the host liquid is essentially in "free fall" during the
> interval. The expansion-compression cycle of the
> cavitation bubbles is timed so that collapse of the
> bubbles occurs during the zero gravity interval created
> by the vertical vibration.
>
> It should be noted
> that magnetic fields are widely used in industry to
> separate particles from paramagnetic fluids.
> Magnetogravimetric separation, for example, involves
> transformation of magnetic forces into hydrostatic
> pressures wherein "levitation" of immersed particles can
> occur. This technique therefore may also be applied, if
> desired, to provide the necessary zero gravity parameter
> required to perform applicant's process as disclosed
> herein. (See, e.g., Zimmels, Y., Y. Tuval and I. J. Lin,
> IEEE Transactions O. Magnetics, MAG-13, 1047 (1977)
> Principles of High Gradient Magnetogravimetric
> Separation; Rowlands, G., IEEE Transactions of
> Magnetics, MAG-13, 992 (1977) Magnetostatic Energy of
> Parametric Particles in Magnetic Separators.)
>
> At an operating
> temperature of 1000 K., the thermal diffusivity of
> tungsten is 1.2 times greater than that of liquid
> lithium. Hence the use of solid metal horns 30 or fiber
> bundles 41 of tungsten provide an effective way in which
> to remove fusion heat from the liquid lithium and
> transfer it out of the reaction chamber 11. These horns
> or fiber bundles simultaneously transfer mechanical
> energy from external acoustic transducers 39 to the
> liquid lithium and transfer heat from the lithium to an
> external heat reservoir. In this manner, the liquid
> lithium remains in the reaction chamber 11 and all
> difficulties associated with pumping a hot, corrosive
> liquid metal are avoided. Heat is removed from the
> external portion of the horns or fiber bundles by direct
> contact with a heat exchange fluid that circulates in
> housing 36. This use of a coolant in direct contact with
> the horn also serves to keep the outer face of a horn
> and any transducer attached to it at a constant
> temperature.
>
> Additional heat
> transfer may also be provided by circulating the helium
> from the space 22 between the housing 12 and the shield
> 21 through a heat exchanger.
>
> The solid metal horns
> may be driven at their outer surfaces in one of a
> variety of ways:
>
> a. An array of
> piezoelectric or piezomagnetic ceramic shapes or
> crystals with a high Curie point.
>
> b. An electrodynamic
> driver element that is not in actual contact with the
> outer horn surface. This device may be one similar to
> those described by Seeman and Staats [Seeman, H. J., and
> H. Staats, Acustica 6, 326-334 (1956)] for steady-state
> operation or a device such as that described by
> Eisenmenger [Eisenmenger, E., Acustica,a 186-202
> (1962)], for generation of intense pressure pulses.
>
> c. The outer face of
> the horn may be the termination of an acoustic
> transmission line driven by a remote source of acoustic
> energy.
>
> The permeation of
> tritium through the wall of housing 12 of the reaction
> chamber 11 is inhibited by electrically isolating the
> shield 21 from the horns 30 or 40 and then placing a
> negative voltage on the reaction chamber and grounding a
> metal shell in or on the shield. H-isotopes such as t
> exist as ions when dissolved in metals and an electric
> field of the specified direction at the surface of the
> reaction chamber will drive the tritium back into the
> interior of the chamber. If tritium does escape from the
> reaction chamber, it will mix with the helium and then
> be removed from that inert gas by a variety of ways when
> it is circulated as a heat exchange medium.
>
> A specified deuterium
> pressure p.sub.d \* is maintained over the level L or
> surface of the liquid lithium in chamber 11 by
> connection of conduit 50 to an external reservoir of
> deuterium.
>
> Tritium generated in
> the cavitation zone will be concentrated in the zone by
> the flow of acoustical energy into that region of the
> host liquid. A fundamental requirement that has been
> placed on the acoustic field in this example of a Type I
> CFR is that one pressure cycle consist of a negative
> pressure of specified amplitude followed by a positive
> pressure whose amplitude typically is twice that of the
> negative pressure. Thus on an average the pressure will
> be a maximum in the cavitation zone and decrease with
> distance toward the wall of the chamber 11. There will
> thus exist a negative pressure gradient in the liquid
> lithium. This pressure gradient will cause the
> H-isotopes to diffuse toward the center of the
> cavitation zone relative to the liquid metal. In this
> manner the specified acoustic pressure field will itself
> be used to help contain the tritium generated in the
> cavitation zone, and thus meet a primary design
> requirement.
>
> In a steady state
> field, there may also be acoustic streaming that causes
> a flow of the liquid lithium from the inner surface of
> the horn to the cavitation zone. Such flows set up
> rotational patterns of convection that may also help
> contain tritium in the cavitation zone. In a given mode
> of operation, streaming or the negative pressure
> gradient may be more effective in this containment.
> Streaming can be eliminated by using short burts of a
> few cycles of negative-positive pressures while at the
> same time an average negative pressure gradient is
> maintained.
>
> TYPE II CFR
>
> The Type II CFR
> maximizes the production of tritium and other useful
> products through thermonuclear fusion inside collapsing
> bubbles. The bubbles contain H-isotopes and vapor of the
> host metal and, in one mode of operation, lithium vapor
> as well. In a Type II CFR fusion is brought about by the
> high temperatures and pressures caused by adiabatic
> compression of the bubbles' contents in the terminal
> phase of collapse. The host liquid is tin, although any
> one of the several gamma-type metals such as indium,
> thallium or gallium may be used. Characteristics of tin
> that make its selection useful are its low vapor
> pressure over a wide range of operating temperatures,
> the very low or zero solubility of H-isotopes of
> hydrogen in the liquid, and the instability of its
> hydrides in the range of operating temperatures.
> Although H-isotopes dissolve in it, aluminum may also be
> used in a Type II CFR as the host liquid.
>
> The use of tin as the
> host metal requires that its container be surrounded by
> a layer or "blanket" of lithium or a lithium-beryllium
> alloy in order to generate tritium for use as a fuel.
> The blanket of Li or Li-Be will be referred to hereafter
> as the Li-blanket for brevity. The Li-blanket is
> separated from the host liquid by a neutron moderator to
> be described below as part of the reaction chamber. Tin
> has small collision and capture cross sections for
> neutrons and the function of the moderator is to reduce
> the energy of fast fusion neutrons to the range where
> they have a high probability of interacting with Li and
> Be and producing tritium. The Li-blanket is at an
> operating temperature at which removal of tritium is
> simply effected by acoustic means. A low amplitude
> acoustic field (as constructed with the high amplitude
> acoustic field in the cavitation zone) applied to the
> Li-blanket will cause any small aggregation of tritium
> atoms to grow into bubbles that will rise to a surface
> of the blanket or aggregate in specified regions as
> described below.
>
> The host liquid, tin,
> will contain little or no dissolved H-isotopes. Seeds
> containing such isotopes will be relatively large, with
> equivalent radii of 10.sup.-3 to 10.sup.-2 cm. Although
> a variety of methods may be used to introduce seeds into
> the host liquid, a specific method will be described
> below. When such seeds are introduced into the host
> liquid below a zero-gravity field caused by an
> inhomogeneous magnetic field, the seeds rise until they
> enter the zero-gravity region in the cavitation zone.
> The seeds remain essentially unchanged in the cavitation
> zone until they are caused to expand and collapse by the
> applied acoustic pressure field. A bubble may then
> either reform as a seed in the cavitation zone and
> repeat the expansion-collapse cycle or be ejected from
> the cavitation zone by hydrodynamic forces or be
> released by pulsing of the magnetic field.
>
> The operating
> temperature is in the range of 1400 to 1500 K, although
> lower temperature may be specified. At 1400 K, the vapor
> pressure of tin is 1.44.times.10.sup.-4 mm hg or
> approximately 0.1 N m.sup.-2. At that temperature, the
> vapor pressure of lithium is 129.4 mm Hg.
>
> The Li-blanket will
> contain only low concentrations of tritium that will be
> removed by acoustic degassing at interior regions. Hence
> the operating, or ambient, pressure will have little
> effect on permeation of tritium through structural walls
> containing either liquid tin or liquid Li or Li-be.
> While the precautions for containment of tritium
> described in connection with the Type I CFR will be
> retained, the choice of the operating pressure,
> Pl.sub.n, may be either low (of the order of 1 bar or
> less) or high (of the order of several hundred bars),
> depending on the mode of operating of the Type II CFR
> that is specified.
>
> In both the Type I
> and Type II CFR's, the applied or acoustic, pressure is
> a sequence of a negative pressure of 50-100 bars
> followed by a positive pressure of 100-200 bars.
>
> As in a Type I CFR, a
> magnetic field that is uniform in a horizontal direction
> but inhomogeneous in the vertical direction is created
> in the host liquid (and in the Li-Be blanket as well) by
> an external source. The host metal, tin, is diamagnetic
> in the liquid state and has a susceptibility,
> .chi..sub.L =3.02.times.10.sup.-6. H-isotopes are also
> diamagnetic with a susceptibility .chi..sub.c
> =-2.48.times.10.sup.-5. Here we have two possible
> specifications for the magnetic field:
>
> 1. In order to cancel
> the gravitation force in the liquid in the cavitation
> zone in absence of a bubble, the maximum of the magnetic
> field, B.sub.o \*, should be 466 kilogauss and be located
> below the cavitation zone.
>
> 2. In order to cancel
> the gravitational force in the host liquid in the
> presence of a bubble, the difference .chi..sub.L
> -.chi..sub.c =+2.17.times.10.sup.-5, fixes the maximum,
> B.sub.o \*, at 174 kilogauss and locates it above the
> cavitation zone.
>
> The magnetic field
> required for gravity cancellation in tin is
> approximately six to 10 times larger than that required
> in lithium. When aluminum is used as the host liquid,
> the range of B.sub.O.sup.\* is 76-127 kilogauss.
>
> The very large
> magnetic field required for gravity cancellation in a
> Type II CFR on the earth's surface makes the alternative
> specification for operation of a Type II CFR in a space
> vehicle in zero gravity flight an advantageous one.
>
> Large bubbles such as
> those employed in a Type II CFR normally float to the
> surface of the host liquid or dissolve. By choice of tin
> as the host liquid, the solubility of H-isotopes in the
> host liquid is negligible and bubble will dissolve very
> slowly, if at all. By creation of a zero-gravity field
> in the cavitation zone, a bubble placed in the
> cavitation zone will remain unless ejected by force in
> the acoustic pressure field or hydrodynamic forces
> during collapse.
>
> Referring now to FIG.
> 3, 60 denotes generally a Type II CFR having a fusion
> chamber 61 formed inside of a cylindrical, inner housing
> 62, which, for example, is made of tungsten, and which
> is lined with a solid layer 63 of beryllium. Housing 62
> is surrounded in radially spaced relation by a second
> cylindrical housing 65, which may also be made of
> tungsten. The space between housings 62 and 65 contains
> a liquid metal 66, such as a lithium-beryllium alloy,
> which forms the above-noted Li-blanket between the
> housings. The outer housing 65 is, in turn, enclosed
> within a neutron-tritium shield 68, which is similar to
> the shield referred to in the first embodiment. Also as
> in the first embodiment, the annular space 69 between
> the shield 68 and the outer housing 65 is filled with a
> gas such as helium, or the like. The Be-blanket 63
> functions as a moderator, which slows neutrons down to
> energies at which they react with the Li-blanket to
> produce tritium. The outer surface of the reaction
> chamber housing 62 and the outer cyclinder 65 are made
> of tungsten because these surfaces are in contact with
> the Li-blanket. The beryllium moderator layer 63 has
> fairly good corrosion resistance to liquid tin even at
> elevated temperatures, and any beryllium that dissolves
> will only enhance the properties of the host liquid- for
> example, the host liquid will become less compressible.
>
> The concentration of
> dissolved H-isotopes in the Li-blanket and in the liquid
> tin will be relatively small, and the problem of
> containment of tritium in this Type II CFR is
> correspondingly less than in the case of the CFR shown
> in FIG. 1.
>
> For supplying
> acoustic energy to the host liquid, an array (for
> example, six) of acoustical horns 30, which may be
> similar to the solid tungsten variety employed in the
> first embodiment, are mounted intermediate their ends in
> central, registering openings in the housings 62 and 65
> so that their tapered or pointed ends project centrally
> into the chamber 61 in spaced relation to each other. As
> in the case of the first embodiment, each of these horns
> has associated therewith a heat transfer housing 36 for
> removing heat from the chamber 61 when the CFR 60 is
> operated as a generator of energy.
>
> For providing
> low-power acoustic energy to the Li-blanket 66, another
> plurality of acoustical horns 40, which may be similar
> to the tungsten fiber-type horns illustrated in FIG. 2,
> are mounted on housing 65 for operation by their
> associated transducers 39. While in the embodiment
> illustrated in FIG. 3 only three such low-power
> transducers 39 and their associated tungsten fiber
> bundles 40 are illustrated, it is to be understood that
> additional such horns could be employed as desired.
>
> Fuel is supplied to
> chamber 61 in the form of a mixture of deuterium and
> tritium. The deuterium is supplied from an external
> source by means of a pipe 71, which is connected to one
> inlet of a combination pump and mixer 72. In the steady
> state operation of CFR 60 the necessary tritium
> inventory is maintained by the "breeding" of tritium in
> the LI-blanket 66. The initial "charge" of tritium is
> created in the lithium either by fusion reaction between
> deuterium nuclei alone in the CFR, or by neutrons from
> an external source. The fusion reactions between
> deuterium nuclei generates both tritium in the reaction
> chamber 61 and in the blanket 66 by reaction of fusion
> neutrons. This initial distribution of tritium is then
> renewed by reactions of Li and Be with neutrons from
> fusion reactions in the collapsing bubbles. The tritium
> generated in the blanket 66 aggregates into seeds, which
> are made to grow into large bubbles by application
> thereto of a low-amplitude acoustic field through the
> horns 40. This field causes the seeds to grow by a
> process called rectified diffusion, which forces tritium
> into the bubbles.
>
> In operation, a
> zero-gravity field is created, as above, by a horizontal
> magnetic field, B\*, in a small, central region parallel
> to the horizontal axis of the magnetic field. This
> zero-gravity field exists in the liquid Li-blanket as
> well as in the liquid tin in the reaction chamber 61.
> Tritium bubbles that form in the blanket 66 above the
> zero-gravity field float to the surface S-1, and those
> that form in or below the zero-gravity field are trapped
> in it. By pulsing the magnetic field at intervals, the
> trapped tritium is released and floats to the surface
> S-1 where it is removed by pumping. It may be used as
> fuel at another fusion reactor or as shown in FIG. 3, it
> may be mixed with deuterium by drawing it through pipe
> 73 to the pump 72. At the pump it is mixed with
> deuterium and is then used to seed the liquid tin in
> chamber 61 as noted hereinafter.
>
> The Li-blanket is at
> approximately the same temperature as the host liquid,
> and the process of extracting the tritium from the
> blanket is helped by this high temperature. When the
> magnetic field is pulsed, bubbles of deuterium and
> tritium trapped in the cavitation zone also will be
> released and will float to the surface S-2 of the host
> liquid chamber 61, where the gases above the liquid are
> removed by pumping through pipe 74 to the pump 72. From
> the pump a mixture of tritium and deuterium is fed into
> the cavitation zone by a small tungsten capillary tube
> 75 that opens into the liquid tin below the cavitation
> zone. The pressure on the gases in the tube 75 is
> maintained at a value needed to force small bubbles of a
> desired size into the liquid tin at a specified rate.
>
> It is to be
> understood that in the embodiment shown in FIG. 3 the
> neutron-tritium shield 68 and the enclosed protective
> helium atmosphere in space 69 are design features which
> are illustrated only schematically in the drawing.
> Likewise, it is to be understood that any of the methods
> of supplying acoustic power as described in connection
> with the embodiment in FIGS. 1 and 2 can be employed to
> supply acoustic power to the cavitation zone in the Type
> II CFR. The freedom to operate a Type II CFR at an
> elevated ambient pressure, p.sub.ln \*, makes it possible
> to use single negative pressure pulses in causing
> cavitation in the cavitation zone. The required positive
> pressure pulse is then produced by reflection of the
> negative pulse from a low acoustic impedance surface
> such as the free surface of the host liquid.
>
> One of the advantages
> of this design of a Type II CFR is that the installation
> does not require the pumping of either liquid lithium or
> liquid tin. Moreover, the energy released by fusion in
> this Type II CFR may be enhanced by introducing fissile
> material such as thorium or uranium in sub-critical
> amounts into the Li-blanket. Thermalized neutrons that
> reach the blanket would then interact with such heavy
> element to produce fission as well as Li (and Be) to
> create tritium.
>
> In the mode of
> operation in which fusion occurs between lithium and
> ordinary hydrogen, bubbles of .sub.1 H.sup.1 and lithium
> vapor are introduced in the host liquid (for example, as
> particles of LiH) and stabilize as seeds in the
> zero-gravity cavitation zone. In this mode of operation,
> no neutrons are created and tritium is not required for
> operation of the CFR, and consequently the Be-moderator
> and the Li-blanket are omitted from this design of a
> Type II CFR.
>
> CALCULATED GAIN IN
> ENERGY AND TRITIUM IN CAVITATION FUSION REACTORS
>
> Two examples of the
> operation of cavitation fusion reactors (both Type I CFR
> and Type II CFR) are described hereinafter. In each a
> seed of equivalent radius, R.sub.n \*, in a specified
> host liquid grows into a bubble of maximum radius
> R.sub.o \*, and then collapses to a minimum radius,
> R.sub.m \*. In the expansion, a negative pressure does
> W.sub.o \* Joules of work on the bubble and, in the
> collapse, a positive pressure does W.sub.c \* Joules of
> work on the bubble. Hence, in the cycle of expansion and
> collapse, W.sub.m \*=W.sub.o \*+W.sub.c \* Joules of
> mechanical energy is transferred to the bubble by the
> applied, acoustic pressure field. The object of these
> calculations is to show that there is a net gain in
> energy and tritium produced by thermonuclear fusion in
> such a cavitation event.
>
> During most of the
> cycle of expansion and collapse, the liquid and the
> contents of the bubble remain at the operating, or
> ambient, temperature, .theta..sub.n \*. However, as the
> interface of the bubble accelerates inward during
> collapse, there occurs a transition from isothermal to
> adiabatic compression of the bubble's contents and of
> the liquid shell surrounding the bubble. Once the
> compression of the liquid and the bubble contents has
> become adiabatic, collapse continues until the inward
> motion is arrested by high pressures and temperatures at
> a minimum radius, R.sub.m \*. At or near the minimum
> radius, an intense shock wave is radiated into the
> liquid.
>
> These motions and the
> resulting pressures and temperatures in the liquid and
> in the bubble are calculated using a mathematical
> formalism applicant has developed for cavitation
> dynamics (J. ACOUST. Soc. Am. 57, 1379-1396 (1975) and
> 58, 1160-1170 (1975) "Cavitation Dynamics I, A
> Mathematical Formulation" and "Cavitation Dynamics II,
> Free Pulsations And Models For Cavitation Bubbles"). The
> set of differential, integral and algebraic equations
> developed there permit reliable calculations to be made
> of the behavior of cavitation bubbles under a wide
> variety of conditions.
>
> GAIN OF A TYPE I CFR
>
> In a Type I CFR
> thermonuclear fusion occurs mainly between H-isotopes
> dissolved in the host liquid. During collapse of a
> bubble both its contents and a thin shell of liquid
> surrounding it are compressed adiabatically. When the
> bubble reaches its minimum radius, the interface remains
> essentially at rest for an interval of the order of 10
> picoseconds (10.sup.-11 sec.). In this interval the
> bubble radiates an intense shock wave that compresses
> the liquid shell a second time. Temperatures and
> pressures in the liquid behind the shock are high enough
> to cause thermonuclear fusion of the H-isotopes
> dissolved in the liquid metal. This liquid shell in
> which fusion takes place is called the "fusion shell".
> In the fusion shell behind the expanding shock,
> thermonuclear fusion adds enough energy to the liquid to
> maintain the strength of the shock as it encloses an
> increasing volume of liquid. Because the strength of the
> shock remains constant, the temperature and pressure are
> the same throughout this volume and thermonuclear fusion
> occurs at a constant rate throughout this expanding
> sphere. When the interface starts to move appreciably,
> it generates a rarefraction wave that eventually
> destroys the shock. In this second interval (also of the
> order of 10 picoseconds), in which the rarefraction wave
> is overtaking the shock, the fusion shell still
> propagates outward with a uniform rate of energy
> production per unit volume but with a decreasing
> thickness. However, the decrease is small in 10 picosec.
>
> In the example of
> operation of a Type I CFR described hereinafter, the
> fuel is a mixture of tritium and deuterium, and the host
> liquid is lithium. The operating temperature is 1200 K.,
> the ambient pressure is taken to be one bar, and a
> pressure, p.sub.v \*+p.sub.h \*, of 0.127 bar is
> maintained over the surface of the liquid lithium vapor
> and H-isotopes. The dissolved mole fraction, Y.sub.t, of
> tritium is 0.05 and the dissolved mole fraction Y.sub.d,
> of deuterium is 0.05 in the steady state.
>
> The calculation
> assumes that in the cavitation zone of the reactor there
> is a seed of t and d with an equivalent radius, R.sub.n
> \*=2.times.10.sup.-5 cm. The specification of the seed of
> this size is an arbitrary, but convenient, choice
> because the exact amount of H-isotopes initially in the
> very small seeds used in a Type I CFR is irrelevant to
> the subsequent motion of the bubble. Whatever the
> content of the seed, the pressure of vapor and gas in
> the expanding bubble quickly reaches the equilibrium
> value, p.sub.v \*+p.sub.h \*, determined by the ambient
> temperature and is maintained at this value during the
> expansion and most of the collapse of the bubble.
>
> When a negative
> pressure is applied to the cavitation zone, the seed
> expands to a maximum radius, R.sub.o
> \*=2.68.times.10.sup.-1 cm. The work done by the acoustic
> field in expanding the bubble is 7.52.times.10.sup.-3
> joules. While the bubble is at this maximum size, a
> positive pressure of +100 bars is applied to the
> cavitation zone and the work done by the acoustic field
> in compressing the bubble is 8.11.times.10.sup.-1 joule.
> Thus the total mechanical work, W.sub.m \*, transferred
> to the bubble is 8.19.times.10.sup.-1 joule.
>
> Condensation of vapor
> and diffusion of H-isotopes is assumed to cease during
> collapse when the amount of gas and vapor in the bubble
> is that of a bubble of equivalent radius, R.sub.n
> \*=2.times.10.sup.-4 cm. This transition occurs when the
> radius of the bubble is 100 times greater than the
> radius of the initial seed.
>
> The transition from
> isothermal to adiabatic compression is found to occur
> when the radius of the bubble is approximately
> 3.times.10.sup.-4 cm. That is, the transition occurs
> roughly in the vicinity of the new equivalent radius (a
> result that holds for most collapsing bubbles).
>
> The bubble collapses
> to a minimum radius of R.sub.M \* =1.19.times.10.sup.-6
> cm. At this minimum radius, the temperature in the
> bubble rises to a maximum of T.sub.m
> \*=4.22.times.10.sup.7 K. and the pressure in the bubble
> to a maximum of p.sub.m \* =1.67.times.10.sup.12 bars.
> The temperature in the liquid at the interface is
> 2.64.times.10.sup.7 K. and the density of the liquid at
> the interface is 1.69.times.10.sup.3 gm cm.sup.-3.
>
> A shock wave with a
> constant strength equal to this maximum, p.sub.m \*, then
> propagates into the liquid from the bubble. As the shock
> wave moves outward, the interface remains relatively at
> rest for a time interval of 25 picoseconds
> (25.times.10.sup.-12 sec.). However, in this calculation
> this interval is taken to be only 10 picoseconds.
>
> In those 10
> picoseconds, thermonuclear fusion of tritium and
> deuterium in the fusion shell enclosed by the shock
> releases an amount of energy equal to 3.24 joules. Hence
> the gain in energy released as heat over the mechanical
> energy supplied to the bubble is 3.96, or,
> approximately, the energy gain is 4.
>
> When the applied
> positive pressure is increased to +200 bars at the start
> of collapse (and all other parameters held fixed), the
> same bubble collapses to a minimum of
> 1.06.times.10.sup.-6 cm. (that is, R.sub.m \*
> =1.06.times.10.sup.-6 cm.). The total mechanical work
> done on the bubble by the acoustic field is now W.sub.m
> \* =1.75 joules. The maximum temperature reached in the
> bubble is 6.27.times.10.sup.-7 K. and the maximum
> pressure is 3.50.times.10.sup.12 bars. The temperature
> in the liquid at the interface is 3.5.times.10.sup.7 K.
> and the density of the liquid at the interface is
> 2.59.times.10.sup.3 gm cm. .sup.-3. As the intense shock
> wave propagates outward in the liquid with a strength
> p.sub.m \* =3.50.times.10.sup.12 bars, fusion reactions
> between tritium and deuterium in the lithium produce an
> amount of energy equal to 43.85 joules in the time
> interval of 10 picoseconds. Hence the gain in energy
> released as heat over mechanical energy supplied to the
> bubble is 25.06. Hence, approximately, the energy gain
> is 25, even though the mechanical energy absorbed has
> only doubled.
>
> The rate of energy
> production in fusion reactions depends on the square of
> the density of the medium as well as being a complicated
> function of temperature, and it is the large increase in
> density within the fusion shell of the host liquid that
> makes these net gains in energy produced possible. In
> both calculations of the energy gain from a Type I CFR,
> the time interval during which thermonuclear fusion
> takes place in the fusion zone was in all probability
> underestimated by a factor of at least two.
>
> Studies of tritium
> "breeding" in blankets of Li or Li-Be show for that each
> neutron produced in the (t,d) reaction there will be on
> an average up to two tritium nuclei produced by
> reactions of the fusion neutrons with Li or Be nuclei.
> Hence a reasonable multiplication factor for tritium in
> the host liquid for a Type I CFR is 1.5 tritium nuclei
> per fusion nuclei. This factor means that the tritium
> produced in the host liquid more than replaces the
> tritium used as fuel in the reaction chamber and that
> only deuterium need be added to keep the process in
> operation. The tritium remains in solution in the liquid
> lithium until it is consumed by thermonuclear reactions
> in the fusion shell of a collapsed bubble.
>
> In the example above
> where the applied negative pressure is +200 bars, the
> neutrons released create 2.06.times.10.sup.13 tritium
> nuclei or 3.4.times.10.sup.-10 mols of tritium. This
> amount of tritium produced by a single cavitation event
> is that contained in a bubble with an equivalent radius
> of R\*=10.sup.-2 cm. (as compared with the initial seed
> with R.sub.n \* =2.times.10.sup.-5 cm.). As noted, this
> tritium will be dispersed in the liquid lithium until
> another cavitation event consumes it as fuel.
>
> When the calculation
> is repeated for a seed that expands to a maximum radius
> of 2.68.times.10.sup.-1 cm. as before but in liquid
> lithium containing a mole fraction, Y.sub.d, of
> deuterium alone, it is found that energy produced by
> fusion is less than the mechanical work done on the
> bubble in the expansion-collapse cycle. Thus, when a
> positive pressure of +200 bars is applied at the start
> of collapse, the ratio of energy generated to mechanical
> energy absorbed is only 0.48. However, each such
> cavitation event causes the thermonuclear fusion of
> 2.64.times.10.sup.11 deuterium nuclei. There are two
> channels for the (d,d) reaction:
>
> which have almost
> equal probability of occuring. Thus fusion of four
> d-nuclei produce one tritium nucleus and a neutron, in
> addition to a proton and a helium-3 nucleus. Hence a
> multiplication factor of 1.5 yields 2.5 tritium nuclei
> for every four d-nuclei that undergo fusion. In this
> example, a single cavitation event produces
> 616.times.10.sup.11 tritium nuclei or
> 1.09.times.10.sup.-12 mols of tritium. This amount of
> tritium is that contained in a bubble whose equivalent
> radius is 5.times.10.sup.-3 cm.
>
> The conclusion is
> that an inventory of tritium sufficient for steady state
> operation of a Type I CFR can be built up rapidly by
> operation of the reactor with deutrium alone as fuel in
> the start-up phase. It is assumed above that the
> cavitation event takes place in a zero gravity field. In
> these examples of operation of a Type I CFR, the amount
> of energy generated by thermonuclear fusion within the
> bubble is always negligible compared with that released
> in the fusion zone surrounding the collapsed cavity.
>
> In summary, operation
> of a Type I CFR is such that:
>
> a. When a useful gain
> of energy results from a cavitation event in a Type I
> CFR, the work, W.sub.o \*, done by the negative pressure
> in expanding the bubble to its maximum radius, R.sub.o
> \*, is much less than the mechanical work, W.sub.c \*,
> done by the positive pressure during collapse.
> Typically, the ratio of work done on the bubble during
> collapse to work done during expansion is of the order
> of 100.
>
> b. In a Type I CFR,
> the mechanical work, W.sub.o \*, done in expanding a
> bubble from its initial radius, R.sub.n \*, controls the
> maximum radius, R.sub.o \*, that it reaches. The work,
> W.sub.o \*, is chosen so that R.sub.o \* is of the order
> of 10.sup.-1 cm. or less and the expansion ratio,
> R.sub.o \*/R.sub.n \*, is of the order of 10.sup.3 or
> 10.sup.4.
>
> c. In a Type I CFR,
> for a specified value of R.sub.o \*, the mechanical work,
> W.sub.c \*, done on the bubble in collapse controls the
> maximum pressures and temperatures reached in the host
> liquid and in the bubble and hence controls in fusion
> energy, E\*, released in the cavitation event.
>
> d. A Type I CFR is an
> amplifier whose output of fusion energy, E\*, for a
> single cavitation event of specified R.sub.o \* is a
> non-linear function of the mechanical input work,
> W.sub.c \*, that increases more rapidly than the third
> power of W.sub.c \*.
>
> GAIN OF TYPE II CFR
>
> In a Type II CFR,
> relatively large seeds of H-isotopes are used.
> Typically, their initial radii are 50 to 100 times
> larger than those used in a Type I CFR, and their
> volumes are consequently 10.sup.5 to 10.sup.6 greater.
> Larger seeds are required because fusion reactions in a
> Type II CFR takes place mainly between H-isotopes within
> bubbles and not in the liquid. Hence the amount of
> H-isotopes in a seed places an upper limit on the amount
> of energy that may be released in fusion reactions
> caused by a collapsing bubble in a Type II CFR.
>
> In a Type II CFR
> there is a transition from isothermal to adiabatic
> compression of the bubble contents during collapse and
> it is this adiabatic compression that raises the
> temperature and pressure within the bubble to values
> where thermonuclear fusion takes place. The temperature
> rise in the liquid could cause only a negligible number
> of fusion reactions of H-isotopes in the liquid (whose
> mole fraction in any event is very small).
>
> The host liquid in a
> Type II CFR is normally a gamma-metal such as tin,
> indium, gallium or thallium, which neither dissolve or
> react with hydrogen in the temperature range of
> interest. In the example of the operation of a Type II
> CFR described here, however, the host liquid is aluminum
> because its equation-of-state data have been established
> experimentally well into the megabar region of pressure.
> Aluminum closely resembles a gamma-metal except that
> hydrogen does dissolve in it freely. In this
> calculation, it was assumed that aluminum acts like
> gamma-metal in all respects.
>
> Calculations are made
> for the gain in tritium produced in the Li-blanket over
> the tritium consumed as fuel in fusion reactions for:
>
> 1. An operation in
> which a mixture of deuterium and tritium is used as
> fuel,
>
> 2. An operation in
> which deuterium is used as fuel alone.
>
> The calculations that
> were made show that:
>
> a. There is a net
> gain in the production of tritium when a mixture of
> deuterium and tritium is used as fuel in the steady
> state operation of a Type II CFR.
>
> b. Start-up operation
> of a Type II CFR can be accomplished by use of deuterium
> alone as fuel.
>
> In this example, the
> host liquid is aluminum, the operating temperature is
> 1500 K., the ambient pressure is 1 bar and the vapor
> pressure of the liquid metal is 4.96.times.10.sup.-5
> bars.
>
> There is a
> zero-gravity field in the cavitation zone of the
> reactor. Hence seeds containing a mixture of H-isotopes
> introduced into the cavitation zone will remain there.
> Because the host metal is a gamma metal, the seed will
> not dissolve and, in the absence of an acoustic field, a
> distribution of seeds remains relatively stationary both
> in space and time. Another consequence is that the gas
> content of a bubble remains constant throughout the
> expansion and collapse phases.
>
> The calculation
> assumes that a seed with an equivalent radius of R.sub.n
> \* =10.sup.-3 cm. and containing equal mole fractions of
> deuterium and tritium is placed in the cavitation zone
> of the reactor. A negative pressure of -100 bars causes
> the seed to expand to a maximum of R.sub.o \* =1.82 cm. A
> positive pressure of +100 bars is then applied and the
> total mechanical work, W.sub.m \*, done on the bubble is
> 2.59.times.10.sup.2 joules.
>
> The bubble collapses
> to a minimum radius of R.sub.m \* =1.92.times.10.sup.-6
> cm. and then remains relatively motionless for 10
> picoseconds. In that time interval, the temperature
> remains at its maximum, T.sub.m \* =1.64.times.10.sup.8
> K. and the pressure at its maximum, p.sub.m \*
> =6.32.times.10.sup.+13 bars. The number of (d,t)
> reactions that take place in the bubble in this time
> interval is 3.93.times.10.sup.10. Each reaction releases
> 3.20.times.10.sup.-12 joules and hence the total energy
> released is 1.26.times.10.sup.-1 joule. The net energy
> gain is then only 4.86.times.10.sup.-4.
>
> However, each (t,d)
> reaction produces a neutron and a helium-4 nucleus and
> each fusion neutron on an average produces 1.5 tritium
> nuclei in the Li-blanket. Thus the collapse of the
> bubble produces 7.08.times.10.sup.10 tritium nuclei or
> 1.18.times.10.sup.-13 mols of tritium. The amount of
> tritium originally in the seed was N.sub.t
> =3.05.times.10.sup.-14 mols so that the net gain in
> tritium is 3.9.
>
> When the calculation
> for a Type II CFR is repeated using deuterium alone as
> fuel, the yield of tritium is 1.63.times.10.sup.-15
> mols. Here again the necessary inventory of tritium can
> be built up using deuterium alone.
>
> There are other very
> great advantages in using liquid metals as the host
> liquid in a CFR. Electromagnetic radiation from excited
> atoms in a collapsing bubble will be trapped within the
> bubble by the metallic interface and in a liquid metal
> all energy carried by charged particles will be quickly
> absorbed in the metal and appear as heat. The thermal
> conductivities of liquid metals are all large and hence
> liquid metals are highly efficient agents for transfer
> to heat out of the reactor. All liquid metals have large
> values of the coefficient of surface tension, a property
> that helps the bubble interface to retain its spherical
> shape during collapse.
>
> In the foregoing
> disclosure, both the specification of a Type I CFR and
> discussion of the stability of the interface of a
> collapsing bubble have assumed that at its maximum
> radius a bubble is spherical in shape. The interface of
> a spherical bubble is stable during expansion, but is
> unstable during collapse, in the sense that a small
> perturbation of the interface may grow. Several methods
> have been described for inhibiting the growth of such
> instabilities through creation of a zero-gravity field
> within the cavitation zone of a CFR. Another method of
> operating a CFR so as to prevent destruction of a
> collapsing bubble's interface from growth of surface
> instabilities will now be described in the context of a
> Type I CFR; but it is to be understood that it will
> apply equally as well as to a Type II CFR.
>
> The interface of a
> cylindrical (or quasi-cylindrical) bubble has neutral
> stability in the sense that any small perturbation of
> the surface will neither grow nor decay. In arrangements
> to be described, bubbles are constrained to assume a
> quasi-cylindrical shape and hence have neutral stability
> against the growth of a surface perturbation. Points at
> which a vertical axis through the center of a bubble
> intersects the interface will be called the "poles" of
> the bubble, and the intersection of the bubble interface
> with a horizontal plane will be called the "equatorial
> circumference."
>
> Alternative
> arrangements for creating quasi-cylindrical bubbles in a
> CFR include:
>
> 1. Rotation of the
> host liquid in a cavitation zone around a vertical axis.
> The rotation of the liquid metal may be induced by
> "motor" action of an imposed, time-varing magnetic
> field. A bubble on the axis of rotation will assume a
> quasi-cylindrical shape because the rotation generates
> an inward force in the liquid at the interface that is a
> maximum at the equatorial circumference and a minimum at
> the poles. 2. Superposition of static, horizontal,
> uniform magnetic fields on the cavitation zone. Such
> magnetic fields generate a distribution of forces that
> has the same net effect as that created by rotation of
> the host liquid. The directions of the magnetic fields
> are distributed symmetrically about a vertical axis
> through the cavitation zone. Each magnetic field
> interacts with a collapsing bubble so as to induce eddy
> currents in the liquid metal at the interface. These
> currents in turn interact with the magnetic field so as
> to oppose the inward motion. When a number of such
> equally spaced magnetic fields of equal magnitude are
> superposed, the net "drag" force opposing the inward
> motion will be a maximum at the poles and a minimum at
> the equatorial circumference. The difference between the
> maximum and the minimum forces increases with the number
> of superposed fields. Hence the collapsing bubble will
> move inwardly more rapidly at the equatorial
> circumference and will assume a quasi-cylindrical shape.
> 3. Superposition of high-frequency acoustic pressure
> fields on the cavitation zone. The desired result may be
> brought about by standing wave fields, pulses or a
> combination of the two. In the arrangement to be
> described, the radiation pressure of high-frequency,
> high-intensity pulse trains is employed in order to
> achieve the necessary field geometry. When a plane wave
> is incident on a completely reflecting surface, such as
> a bubble interface, a force called the radiation
> pressure is exerted on the bubble interface.
> Intersecting beams of high-frequency (of the order of 1
> MHz, for example) pulse trains are generated by
> transducers arranged symmetrically on the vertical wall
> of the reaction chamber around the cavitation zone so as
> to approximate a uniform inward force on the bubble.
> After a low-frequency pressure field in its negative
> phase expands a seed to a maximum radius R.sub.o, pulse
> trains are simultaneously emitted by the circular array
> of transducers. The vertical and horizontal widths of
> any one beam are of the order of magnitude of the
> diameter of tshe cavitation zone. The bubbles will then
> be subjected to a radiation pressure that is a maximum
> on the equatorial circumferences and a minimum at the
> poles of the bubbles. Under this force geometry the
> contracting bubble will become a quasi-cylinder. At the
> same time, the low frequency field will exert a uniform
> positive pressure on the bubble.
>
> **---**
>
> ****Other Sonofusion /
> Sonoluminesence Patents****
>
> ****US
> 5,659,173  
> Converting acoustic energy into useful other energy
> forms   
> Inventors: Seth J Putterman, Bradley Paul Barber,
> Robert  
> Anthony Hiller, Ritva Maire Johanna Lofstedt**  
> 1997-08-19.   
> Abstract: Sonoluminescence is an off-equilibrium
> phenomenon in which the energy of a resonant sound
> wave in a liquid is highly concentrated so as to
> generate flashes of light. The conversion of sound to
> light represents an energy amplification of eleven
> orders of magnitude. The flashes which occur once per
> cycle of the audible or ultrasonic sound fields can be
> comprised of over one million photons and last for
> less 100 picoseconds. The emission displays a
> clocklike synchronicity; the jitter in time between
> consecutive flashes is less than fifty picoseconds.
> The emission is blue to the eye and has a broadband
> spectrum increasing from 700 nanometers to 200
> nanometers. The peak power is about 100 milliWatts.
> The initial stage of the energy focusing is effected
> by the nonlinear oscillations of a gas bubble trapped
> in the liquid. For sufficiently high drive pressures
> an imploding shock wave is launched into the gas by
> the collapsing bubble. The reflection of the shock
> from its focal point results in high temperatures and
> pressures. The sonoluminescence light emission can be
> sustained by sensing a characteristic of the emission
> and feeding back changes into the driving mechanism.
> The liquid is in a sealed container and the seeding of
> the gas bubble is effected by locally heating the
> liquid after sealing the container. Different energy
> forms than light can be obtained from the converted
> acoustic energy. When the gas contains deuterium and
> tritium there is the feasibility of the other energy
> form being fusion, namely including the generation of
> neutrons.******US 5,858,104.   
> System for focused generation of pressure by bubble
> formation and collapse  
> Joseph A Clark**   
> 1999-01-12.
>
> Abstract: A
> pressure generating system uses a shock wave chamber
> filled with a liquid pressurized to a static pressure
> different from ambient atmospheric pressure. Once a a
> preferred location is established in the chamber, a
> pulsed compressional acoustic shock wave introduced
> into the liquid is reflected from a free surface of
> the liquid as a dilatation wave focused on a point at
> which a bubble forms and expands about an object. The
> static pressure causes the bubble to collapse around
> the object to generate a high pressure thereat.
>
> **WO0139201C2  
> Cavitation nuclear reactor cooling system includes
> heat transfer  
> circuit and driver refrigeration circuit.   
> Ross Tessien.**Assignee: Impulse Devices, Inc.  
> http://www.impulsedevices.com/  
> 2003-01-30.  
> Abstract: Cavitation nuclear reactors generally have a
> reaction chamber within which the cavitation nuclear
> reactions take place. Cavitation nuclear reactions are
> driven by acoustic energy. In order to generate the
> necessary acoustic energy, drivers are connected to
> the reaction chamber. This new and improved system
> utilizes two independent circuits to increase the
> efficiency of the cavitationn nuclear reactors. One
> circuit serves to remove the energy from the interior
> of the reaction chamber at as high a temperature as
> possible. The other circuit acts to cool downs the
> drivers so as to allow the drivers to operate within
> the optimal operating temperature range.
>
> **US20060018420A1  
> Heat exchange system for a cavitation chamber  
> Tessien, Ross Alan**2004-10-25
>
> **WO
> 03/077260  
> Apparatus and Method for Fusion Reactor  
> Michel Laberge, Gavin N Manning**12 March 2003  
> A method for inducing nuclear fusion and a reactor for
> inducing nuclear fusion involve positioning a bubble
> containing fusionable nuclei at the center of a liquid
> filled spherical vessel and generating a spherically
> symmetric positive acoustic pulse in the liquid. The
> acoustic pulse surrounds and converges toward the
> center of the vessel to compress the bubble, thereby
> providing energy to and inducing nuclear fusion of the
> atomic nuclei.
>
> **US20040141578A1  
> Nuclear fusion reactor and method  
> Enfinger, Arthur L.**Abstract: A nuclear fusion reactor comprising
> a spherical reaction chamber with a mirrored interior
> surface filled with a nuclear fusible and laser active
> gaseous medium such as deuterium. Using rapid gaseous
> expansion caused by a focused pulsed laser source
> and/or timed oscillations from piezoelectric
> transducer, a harmonic spherical acoustic wave pattern
> centered within the reaction chamber is created. This
> wave pattern is created near a desired frequency and
> centered in the sphere. The wave pattern contains a
> central gaseous ball of high-density, pressure, and
> temperature that causes ionization and radiation to
> occur. This radiation causes the mirrored chamber to
> activate a spherical laser effect focused on the high
> pressure plasma at the center of the reaction chamber.
> This spherical laser pulse acting on high pressure
> high-density of the central standing wave produces
> ignition of the gas and fusion. The tremendous energy
> from fusion drives the acoustic process which ideally
> allows for a self sustaining ignition temperature
> plasma requiring the addition of fuel only.
>
> **WO9749274A2  
> A method for generating nuclear fusion through high
> pressure. Changing structure of material - comprises
> forming bubbles in  
> liquid inside chamber, expanding bubbles, reducing
> volume of bubbles,  
> adding heat energy and further reducing volume.  
> Inventor: Shui-Yin Lo**1997-06-11   
> Abstract: A method of generating nuclear fusion,
> whereby bubbles of a gas of about 10 micron diameter,
> contained in heavy water, are expanded by use of a
> vacuum to about 100 microns in diameter. The
> subsequent thermal cooling and collapse of the bubbles
> is augmented by a uniform pressure externally applied
> and acting on the bubbles through the heavy water.
> Symmetry in the bubbles' shape is imparted by the
> addition of heat from a laser as the bubbles continue
> to contract. High pressures and therefore temperatures
> are achieved, sufficient to generate nuclear fusion in
> specific materials.******US20020090047A1**  
> **Apparatus for producing ecologically clean
> energy.**
>
> **Roger
> Stringham**  
> **WO/2008/013571   
> Acoustic Inertial Confinement Nuclear Device.  
> Taleyarkhnan, Rusi**    
> Abstract ; An acoustic inertial confinement nuclear
> fusion device is disclosed. The device includes an
> enclosure that holds a fluid with dissolved alpha
> emitters. A generator is coupled to the enclosure, and
> the generator is configured to harmonically drive the
> fluid in the enclosure to induce an acoustic standing
> wave in the fluid. The dissolved alpha emitters
> nucleate bubble clusters in the fluid as the fluid is
> driven by the generator. Neutrons, tritium and/or
> gamma rays, are emitted from the fluid, without or
> with an external source of neutrons.******WO
> 02/097823  
> Methods and Apparatus to Induce D-D amd D-T
> Reactions 2  
> Rusi P Taleyarkhan, Colin D West**4 May 2002  
> (see also USPA 2005 0135532 A1)**
>
> Abstract : A nuclear
> fusion reactor includes a structure for placing at least
> a portion of a liquid into a tension state, the tension
> state being below a cavitation threshold of the liquid.
> The tension state imparts stored energy into the liquid
> portion. A cavitation initiation source provides energy
> to the liquid portion sufficient to nucleate at least
> one bubble having a bubble radius greater than a
> critical bubble radius of the liquid. A structure for
> imploding the bubbles produces imploded cavities. The
> temperature generated by the implosion process can be
> sufficient to induce a nuclear fusion reaction involving
> the liquid. A method for providing nuclear fusion
> tensions a liquid, cavitates the tensioned liquid to
> form at least one bubble, then implodes the bubble,
> wherein a resulting temperature is generated that is
> sufficent to induce a nuclear fusion reaction involving
> the liquid.
>
> ****US Patent
> Application 20030074010  
> Nanoscale explosive-implosive burst generators using
> nuclear-mechanical  
> triggering of pretensioned liquids**Taleyarkhan, Rusi P.   
> April 17, 2003**
>
> A burst generator
> includes a structure for placing at least a portion of a
> liquid into a tension state, the tension state being
> below a cavitation threshold of the liquid. The tension
> state imparts stored mechanical energy into the liquid
> portion. A structure for cavitating provides energy to
> the liquid portion sufficient to bubble nucleate at
> least one bubble having a bubble radius greater than a
> critical bubble radius of the liquid, formation of the
> bubble releasing at least a portion of the energy which
> is stored in the tension state.
>
> ---
>
> **[**http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble\_fusion**](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble_fusion)**
>
> ****Sonofusion****
>
> Bubble fusion, also
> known as sonofusion, is the non-technical name for a
> nuclear fusion reaction hypothesized to occur during
> sonoluminescence, an extreme form of acoustic
> cavitation. Officially, this reaction is termed acoustic
> inertial confinement fusion (AICF) (see ICF) since the
> inertia of the collapsing bubble wall confines the
> energy, causing an extreme rise in temperature. The high
> temperatures that sonoluminescence can produce raise the
> possibility that it might be a means to achieve
> thermonuclear fusion.[1]
>
> Original experiments
>
> US patent
> 4,333,796,[2] filed by Hugh Flynn in 1978, appears to be
> the earliest documented reference to a sonofusion-type
> reaction.
>
> In the March 8, 2002
> issue of the peer-reviewed journal Science, Rusi P.
> Taleyarkhan and colleagues at the Oak Ridge National
> Laboratory (ORNL) reported that acoustic cavitation
> experiments conducted with deuterated acetone (C3D6O)
> showed measurements of tritium and neutron output that
> were consistent with the occurrence of fusion. The
> neutron emission was also reported to be coincident with
> the sonoluminescence pulse, a key indicator that its
> source was fusion caused by the sonoluminescence.[3]
>
> Shock wave
> simulations seem to indicate that the temperatures
> inside the collapsing bubbles may reach up to 10
> megakelvins, i.e. as hot as the center of the
> Sun.[4][5][6][7] Although the apparatus operates in a
> room temperature environment, this is not cold fusion
> (as commonly termed in the popular press) because the
> nuclear reactions would be occurring at the very high
> temperatures in the core of the imploding bubbles.
>
> The researchers used
> a pulse of neutrons in order to nucleate ("seed") the
> tiny bubbles, whereas most previous experiments started
> with small air bubbles already in the liquid. Using this
> new method, the team was able to produce stable bubbles
> that could expand to nearly a millimeter in radius
> before collapsing. In this way, the researchers stated,
> they were able to create the conditions necessary to
> produce very high pressures and temperatures. The
> sensitivity of the fusion rate to temperature, which is
> in turn a function of how small the bubbles get when
> they collapse, in combination with the likely
> sensitivity of the latter to fine experimental details,
> may account for the fact that some research workers have
> reported to see an effect, while others have not.
>
> Taleyarkhan et al.
> also prepared identical experiments in non-deuterated
> (normal) acetone and failed to observe neutron emission
> or tritium production. Taleyarkhan claims his interest
> in bubble fusion began following a post-dinner chat with
> a friend, Dr. Mark Embrechts, in 1995.
>
> Oak Ridge failed
> replication
>
> These experiments
> were repeated at Oak Ridge National Laboratory by D.
> Shapira and M. J. Saltmarsh but using more sophisticated
> neutron detection equipment. They reported that the
> neutron release was consistent with random
> coincidence.[8] A rebuttal by Taleyarkhan and the other
> authors of the original report said that the Shapira and
> Saltmarsh report failed to account for significant
> differences in experimental setup, including over an
> inch of shielding between the neutron detector and the
> sonoluminescing acetone. Taleyarkhan et al. report that
> when these differences are properly considered, the
> Shapira and Saltmarsh results are consistent with
> fusion.[citation needed]
>
> In addition, Galonsky
> has shown that by Taleyarkhan's own detector calibration
> the observed neutrons are too high in energy to be from
> a deuterium-deuterium (d-d) fusion reaction. In a
> rebuttal comment, Taleyarkhan says the energy is
> "reasonably close" to that which is expected.[9]
>
> In February 2005, the
> BBC documentary series Horizon commissioned a
> collaboration between two leading sonoluminescence
> researchers, Seth Putterman and Ken Suslick, to
> reproduce Taleyarkhan's work. Using similar acoustic
> parameters, deuterated acetone, similar bubble
> nucleation, and a much more sophisticated neutron
> detection device, the researchers could find no evidence
> of a fusion reaction. This work was reviewed by a team
> of four scientists, including an expert in
> sonoluminescence and an expert in neutron detection, who
> also concluded that no evidence of fusion could be
> observed.[10][11]
>
> Subsequent reports of
> replication
>
> In 2004, new reports
> of bubble fusion were published by the Taleyarkhan
> group, saying that the results of previous experiments
> have been replicated under more stringent experimental
> conditions.[12][13] These results differed from the
> original results in that fusion was occurring for a much
> longer time frame than previously reported. The original
> report only showed neutron emission from the initial
> bubble collapse following bubble nucleation, whereas
> this report showed neutron emission many acoustic cycles
> later. The data, however, was less than stringent
> insofar as too large a window of measurement was used to
> determine a coincidence between neutron emission and
> sonoluminescent light emission. Furthermore, the energy
> of the detected neutrons was not consistent with
> neutrons produced from a fusion reaction.
>
> In July 2005, two of
> Taleyarkhan's students at Purdue University published
> evidence confirming the previous result. They used the
> same acoustic chamber, the same deuterated acetone fluid
> and a similar bubble nucleation system. In this report,
> no neutron-sonoluminescence coincidence was attempted.
> Once again, the neutron energies measured were not
> consistent with those of neutrons produced by a d-d
> fusion reaction.[14][15]
>
> A paper published in
> the journal Physical Review Letters by researchers from
> Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute reports statistically
> significant evidence of fusion:[16][17][18] The initial
> news report, however, shows that the reaction does not
> always work correctly and it is not known what
> parameters change to cause the reaction to function
> properly or not function at all.[citation needed]
>
> In November 2006, in
> the midst of charges leveled at Taleyarkhan as regards
> his research standards, Dr. Edward R. Forringer and
> undergraduates David Robbins and Jonathan Martin of
> LeTourneau University presented two papers at the
> American Nuclear Society Winter Meeting that reported
> replication of neutron emission during a visit to the
> meta-stable fluids research lab at Purdue University.
> Their experimental setup was similar to the preceding
> experiments in that it used a mixture of deuterated
> acetone, deuterated benzene, tetrachloroethylene and
> uranyl nitrate. Notably, however, it operated without an
> external neutron source and used two types of neutron
> detectors. They claimed a liquid scintillation detector
> measured neutron levels at 8 standard deviations above
> the background level, while plastic detectors measured
> levels at 3.8 standard deviations above the background.
> These measurements were within one standard deviation
> for the same experiment with a non-deuterated control
> liquid, indicating that the neutron production had only
> occurred during cavitation of the deuterated
> liquid.[19][20][21]
>
> Doubts prompt
> investigation
>
> Reports as
> spectacular as the above arouse a lot of doubt. In March
> 2006, Nature published a "special report" "silencing the
> hype" that called into question the validity of the
> results of the Purdue experiments.[22] The report quotes
> Brian Naranjo of the University of California, Los
> Angeles to the effect that spectrum measured in these
> sonofusion experiments is consistent with radioactive
> decay of the lab equipment and hence does not reliably
> demonstrate the presence of nuclear reactions.[23]
>
> The response of
> Taleyarkhan et al., published in Physical Review
> Letters, attempts to refute Naranjo's hypothesis as to
> the cause of the neutrons detected.[24]
>
> Doubts at Purdue
> University's Nuclear Engineering faculty as to whether
> the positive results reported from sonofusion
> experiments conducted there were truthful prompted the
> university to initiate a review of the research,
> conducted by Purdue's Office of the Vice President for
> Research. In a March 9, 2006 article entitled "Evidence
> for bubble fusion called into question", Nature
> interviewed several of Taleyarkhan's colleagues who
> suspected something was amiss.[25]
>
> On February 7, 2007,
> the Purdue University administration determined that
> "the evidence does not support the allegations of
> research misconduct and that no further investigation of
> the allegations is warranted". Their report also stated
> that "vigorous, open debate of the scientific merits of
> this new technology is the most appropriate focus going
> forward."[26][27] In order to verify that the
> investigation was properly conducted, House
> Representative Brad Miller requested full copies of its
> documents and reports by March 30, 2007.[28]
>
> In June 2008, a
> multi-institutional team including Taleyarkhan publishes
> a paper in Nuclear Engineering and Design to "clear up
> misconceptions generated by a webposting of UCLA which
> served as the basis for the Nature article of March
> 2006", according to a press release.[29]
>
> On July 18, 2008,
> Purdue University announced that a committee with
> members from five institutions has investigated 12
> allegations of research misconduct by Rusi Taleyarkhan.
> It concluded that two allegations were foundedthat
> Taleyarkhan had claimed independent confirmation of his
> work when in reality the apparent confirmations were
> done by Taleyarkhan's former students and was not as
> "independent" as Taleyarkhan implied, and that
> Taleyarkhan had included an additional colleague's name
> on one of his papers who had not actually been involved
> in the research ("the sole apparent motivation for the
> addition of Mr. Butt was a desire to overcome a
> reviewer's criticism," the report concluded). [30][31]
> Purdue University had previously said, in a press
> release in July 2005, that Butt's replication was
> independent from Taleyarkhan[32]
>
> Taleyarkhan appealed
> the conclusions in the report, but this was rejected. He
> said the two allegations of misconduct were trivial
> administrative issues and had nothing to do with the
> discovery of bubble nuclear fusion or the underlying
> science, and that "all allegations of fraud and
> fabrication have been dismissed as invalid and without
> merit  thereby supporting the underlying science and
> experimental data as being on solid ground". [33]
>
> On August 27, 2008 he
> was stripped of his named Arden Bement Jr.
> Professorship, and forbidden to be a thesis advisor for
> graduate students for at least the next 3 years.[33][34]
>
> References
>
> 1. ^ Chang, Kenneth
> (February 27, 2007). "Practical Fusion, or Just a
> Bubble?". New York Times.
> http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/27/science/27fusion.html?8dpc.
> Retrieved on 2007-02-27. "Dr. Putterman's approach is to
> use sound waves, called sonofusion or bubble fusion, to
> expand and collapse tiny bubbles, generating ultrahot
> temperatures. At temperatures hot enough, atoms can
> literally fuse and release even more energy than when
> they split in nuclear fission, now used in nuclear power
> plants and weapons. Furthermore, fusion is clean in that
> it does not produce long-lived nuclear waste."
>
> 2. ^ US patent
> 4333796, , "Method of generating energy by acoustically
> induced cavitation fusion and reactor therefor", granted
> 1982-06-08 
>
> 3. ^ Taleyarkhan, R.
> P.; C. D. West, J. S. Cho, R. T. Lahey, Jr. R.
> Nigmatulin, and R. C. Block (2002-03-08). "Evidence for
> Nuclear Emissions During Acoustic Cavitation". Science
> 295 (1868). ISSN 0036-8075.
> http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/hottopics/bubble/index.shtml.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 4. ^ Shapira, D.; M.
> J. Saltmarsh (2002-03-01). ""Comments on Reported
> Nuclear Emissions during Acoustic Cavitation"" (PDF).
> Fusion Ignition Research Experiment (FIRE) Program.
> http://fire.pppl.gov/sono\_saltmarsh\_expts.pdf. Retrieved
> on 2007-05-13.
>
> 5. ^ Taleyarkhan, R.
> P.; R. C. Block, C. D. West and R. T. Lahey Jr.
> (2002-03-02). "Comments on the Shapira and Saltmarsh
> Report" (PDF). Dr. Richard T. Lahey, Jr. website
> (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute).
> http://www.rpi.edu/%7Elaheyr/SciencePaper.pdf. Retrieved
> on 2007-05-13.
>
> 6. ^ Becchetti, F.
> (2002-03-08). "Evidence for Nuclear Reactions in
> Imploding Bubbles". Science 295 (1850).
> doi:10.1126/science.1070165. ISSN 0036-8075.
>
> 7. ^ Kennedy, D.
> (2002-03-08). "To Publish or Not to Publish". Science
> 295 (1793): 1793. doi:10.1126/science.295.5561.1793.
> ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11884720.
>
> 8. ^ Shapira, D.; M.
> J. Saltmarsh (19 August 2002). "Nuclear Fusion in
> Collapsing Bubbles  Is it There? An Attempt to Repeat
> the Observation of Nuclear Emissions from
> Sonoluminescence". Physical Review Letters v. 89 (letter
> 104302). ISSN 1079-7114 (online).
> http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v89/i10/e104302.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 9. ^ Galonsky, A. (6
> September 2002). "Tabletop Fusion Revisited". Science
> 297 (1645). doi:10.1126/science.297.5587.1645b. ISSN
> 0036-8075.
>
> 10. ^ "Nuclear fusion
> 'put to the test'". BBC News. 17 February 2005.
> http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4270297.stm.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 11. ^ ""An Experiment
> to Save the World"" (programme transcript). Horizon. BBC
> News.
> http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/experiment\_trans.shtml.
> Retrieved
> on 2007-05-13.
>
> 12. ^ Bourgeois,
> Theresa (2 March 2004). "Researchers Report Bubble
> Fusion Results Replicated: Physical Review E publishes
> paper on fusion experiment conducted with upgraded
> measurement system". RPI News & Information.
> http://news.rpi.edu/update.do?artcenterkey=65&setappvar=page(1).
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 13. ^ Taleyarkhan, R.
> P.; J. S. Cho, C. D. West, R. T. Lahey, R. I.
> Nigmatulin, and R. C. Block (22 March 2004). "Additional
> Evidence of Nuclear Emissions During Acoustic
> Cavitation". Physical Review E 69 (letter 036109).
> doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.69.036109.
> http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhRvE..69c6109T.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 14. ^ Venere, Emil
> (12 July 2005). "Purdue findings support earlier nuclear
> fusion experiments". Purdue News (Purdue University).
> http://news.uns.purdue.edu/html4ever/2005/050712.Xu.fusion.html.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 15. ^ Xu, Y.; A. Butt
> (3 May 2005). "Confirmatory Experiments for Nuclear
> Emissions During Acoustic Cavitation". Nuclear
> Engineering and Design 235 (1317): pp.13171324.
> doi:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2005.02.021. ISSN 0167-899X.
>
> 16. ^ Peplow, Mark
> (10 January 2006). "Desktop fusion is back on the table"
> ([dead link]  Scholar search). Nature.com.
> doi:10.1038/news060109-5. ISSN 1744-7933.
> http://www.nature.com/news/2006/060109/full/060109-5.html.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 17. ^ Taleyarkhan, R.
> P.; C. D. West, R. T. Lahey, R. I. Nigmatulin, J. S.
> Cho, R. C. Block, and Y. Xu (January 2006). "Nuclear
> Emissions During Self-Nucleated Acoustic Cavitation".
> Physical Review Letters 96 (letter 034301): 034301.
> doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.034301.
> http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhRvL..96c4301T.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.  "...Statistically
> significant nuclear emissions were observed for
> deuterated benzene and acetone mixtures but not for
> heavy water. The measured neutron energy was <=2.45
> MeV, which is indicative of deuterium-deuterium (D-D)
> fusion. Neutron emission rates were in the range ~5x103
> n/s to ~104 n/s and followed the inverse law dependence
> with distance..."
>
> 18. ^ "Using Sound
> Waves To Induce Nuclear Fusion With No External Neutron
> Source". Science Daily (Rensselaer Polytechnic
> Institute). 31 January 2006.
> http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060130155542.htm.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.  "...The experiment was
> specifically designed to address a fundamental research
> question, not to make a device that would be capable of
> producing energy, Block says...To verify the presence of
> fusion, the researchers used three independent neutron
> detectors and one gamma ray detector. All four detectors
> produced the same results: a statistically significant
> increase in the amount of nuclear emissions due to
> sonofusion when compared to background levels..."
>
> 19. ^ "Bubble Fusion
> Confirmed by LETU Research" LeTourneau University News
> (www.letu.edu/opencms/opencms/events/Bubble\_Fusion\_Confirmed\_by\_LETU\_Research.html)
> link
> inactive as of 2008-05-10
>
> 20. ^ ""Technical
> Sessions by Day (Wednesday)"" (PDF). ANS 2006 Winter
> Meeting & Nuclear Technology Expo Official Program.
> November 12-16, 2006. 24.
> http://www.ans.org/meetings/docs/2006/wm2006-official.pdf.
> Retrieved on 2006-12-06.  (confirmation of
> presentation)
>
> 21. ^ Forringer,
> Edward R.; David Robbins, Jonathan Martin (12 November
> 2006). "Confirmation of Neutron Production During
> Self-Nucleated Acoustic Cavitation". Transactions of the
> American Nuclear Society v.95: p.736. ISSN 0003-018X.
>
> 22. ^ "Bubble fusion:
> silencing the hype". Nature.com. 8 March 2006.
> doi:10.1038/news060306-1 (inactive 2009-03-12). ISSN
> 1744-7933.
> http://www.nature.com/news/2006/060306/full/news060306-1.html.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 23. ^ Naranjo, Brian
> (3 October 2006). "Comment on 'Nuclear Emissions During
> Self-Nucleated Acoustic Cavitation'". Physical Review
> Letters 97 (letter 149403): 149403.
> doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.149403.
>
> 24. ^ Taleyarkhan, R.
> P.; R. C. Block, R. T. Lahey, Jr., R. I. Nigmatulin, and
> Y. Xu (3 October 2006). "Taleyarkhan et al. Reply:".
> Physical Review Letters 97 (letter 149404): 149404.
> doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.149404.
>
> 25. ^ Samuel Reich,
> Eugenie (9 March 2006). "Evidence for bubble fusion
> called into question". Nature 440 (132): 132.
> doi:10.1038/440132b.
>
> 26. ^ "Purdue
> integrity panel completes research inquiry". Purdue News
> (Purdue University). 7 February 2007.
> http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2007a/070207BennettTaleyarkhan.html.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 27. ^ Chang, Kenneth
> (February 13, 2007). "Researcher Cleared of Misconduct,
> but Case Is Still Murky". New York Times: p. F-4.
> http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/13/science/13purd.html.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 28. ^ "Miller Seeks
> Data on Purdue Investigation Into Scientific
> Misconduct". House Committee on Science and Technology.
> 22 March 2007.
> http://science.house.gov/press/PRArticle.aspx?NewsID=1734.
> Retrieved on 2007-05-13.
>
> 29. ^ Taleyarkhan,
> R.P. (June 2008). "Modeling, Analysis and Prediction of
> Neutron Emission Spectra From Acoustic Cavitation Bubble
> Fusion Experiments". Nuclear Engineering and Design 2008
> (238): 2779-2791. doi:10.1016/j.nucengdes.2008.06.007.
>
> 30. ^ "Purdue
> committee completes research misconduct investigation".
> Purdue University. 18 July 2008.
> http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2008b/080718BennettTaleyarkhan.html.
> Retrieved on 2008-07-18.
>
> 31. ^ "Report of the
> Investigation Committee In the Matter of Dr. Rusi P.
> Taleyarkhan" (PDF). Purdue University. 18 April 2008.
> http://news.uns.purdue.edu/x/2008b/080718PurdueReport.pdf.
> Retrieved on 2008-07-19.
>
> 32. ^ "Purdue
> findings supports earlier nuclear fusion experiments".
> Purdue University. 12 July 2005.
> http://www.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2005/050712.Xu.fusion.html.
> Retrieved on 2008-09-04.
>
> 33. ^ a b Jayaraman,
> K. S.. "Bubble fusion discoverer says his science is
> vindicated". Nature India. doi:10.1038/nindia.2008.271.
> http://www.nature.com/nindia/2008/080901/full/nindia.2008.271.html;jsessionid=4j2svxic4rcm.
> Retrieved
> on 2008-09-01.
>
> 34. ^ Press,
> Associated (August 27, 2008). "Purdue reprimands fusion
> scientist for misconduct". San Francisco Chronicle.
> http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2008/08/27/national/a140220D17.DTL&feed=rss.business.
> Retrieved
> on 2008-08-28.  
>     
> News
>
> "Bubble Power",
> Richard T. Lahey Jr., Rusi P. Taleyarkhan & Robert
> I. Nigmatulin, IEEE Spectrum Magazine, May 2005 
> Readable, quantitative, illustrated article
>
> "Bubble Fusion
> Research Under Scrutiny", IEEE Spectrum, May 2006,
> follow-up on May 2005 article
>
> R. T. Lahey Jr, R. P.
> Taleyarkhan, and R. I. Nigmatulin, Sonofusion  Fact or
> Fiction? (PDF format)
>
> "Possible
> Sound-Induced Nuclear Fusion Posited" Rensselaer
> Polytechnic Institute Press Release, March 5, 2002
>
> "Fusion controversy
> rekindled" BBC News, March 5, 2002
>
> "Fusion experiment
> disappoints" BBC News, July 2, 2002
>
> "Evidence bubbles
> over to support tabletop nuclear fusion device" March 2,
> 2004
>
> "Sound waves size up
> sonoluminescence". PhysicsWeb. February 5, 2002
>
> "Researchers Report
> Bubble Fusion Results Replicated" Rensselaer Polytechnic
> Institute Press Release, March 2, 2004
>
> Harnessing bubbles to
> trigger nuclear fusion  22 January 2005, Justin
> Mullins, New Scientist Magazine Issue 2483 (subscription
> required)
>
> Purdue findings
> support earlier nuclear fusion experiments  New
> positive bubble/sonofusion findings were detailed in a
> peer-reviewed paper appearing in the May issue of the
> journal Nuclear
>
> Engineering and
> Design. (July 12, 2005)
>
> Bubble Fusion takes
> next hurdle  The potential for cavitation to induce
> nuclear fusion lets physicists think in new directions
> of energy production. (July 18, 2005)
>
> "Desktop fusion is
> back on the table; Physicist claims to have definitive
> data, but can they be replicated?", news@nature.com,
> January 10, 2006 (subscription required)
>
> "Sonofusion
> Experiment Produces Results Without External Neutron
> Source" PhysOrg.com January 27, 2006
>
> "Using Sound Waves To
> Induce Nuclear Fusion With No External Neutron Source"
> (sciencedaily.com, January 31, 2006)
>
> "Bubble fusion:
> silencing the hype", Nature online, March 8, 2006 
> Nature reveals serious doubts over reports of fusion in
> collapsing bubbles (subscription required)
>
> What's New, March 10,
> 2006 - failed replications
>
> "Bubble-fusion group
> suffer setback; Team admits a mix-up with one of their
> neutron detectors", May 10, 2006, news@nature.com
> (subscription required)
>
> "Purdue Bubble Wraps
> Sonofusion Inquiry Results", June 21, 2006 Photonics.com
>
> "Chain Reaction"
> Movie, August 1996
>
> "Introduction to
> Sonofusion" Roger Stringham, October 2006
>
> "Practical Fusion, or
> Just a Bubble?", Kenneth Chang, The New York Times,
> February 27, 2007
>
> **---
>
> [**http://www.free-press-release.com/news/200608/1156402754.html**](http://www.free-press-release.com/news/200608/1156402754.html)**
>
> ****Fraud in US Patent Office Rejection of
> Patent Application in Bubble Fusion goes to
> Supreme Court****
>
> ****by Thomas
> Prevenslik****
>
> August 24, 2006 --
>
> BACKGROUND
>
> Bubble fusion is
> related to the field of sonoluminescence (SL) where high
> temperatures are generally thought to explain the
> visible light observed in the collapse of bubbles in
> water under ultrasound, the high temperatures claimed as
> utility in initiating nuclear reactions and enhancing
> chemical reactions in sonochemistry. In sonochemistry,
> temperatures from 5,000 to 15,000 degrees are claimed
> while in bubble fusion the temperatures claimed exceed 2
> million degrees.
>
> However by Le
> Chatelier?s principle, the water vapor in collapsing
> bubbles takes the minimum energy path in response to the
> decreasing volume by condensing to liquid instead of
> taking the higher path by increasing in temperature and
> pressure, as would be the case in a collapsing air
> filled bubble. Except for a small non-equilibrium
> effect, the water vapor in bubble collapse condenses
> with less than about a 60 C rise in temperature, and
> therefore claims of 5,000 to 15,000 degrees in
> sonochemistry are just as ludicrous as claims of 2
> million degrees in bubble fusion.
>
> NATURE ARTICLE ON THE
> ALLEGATION OF MISUSE OF $250,000 OF SONOFUSION FUNDS
>
> Recently,
> consequences of the USPTO granting patents on false
> prior art center on the Nature article (Vol. 442, pp.
> 230-231, 20 July 2006) that suggested that $250,000 of
> DARPA funds were misused by Putterman and Taleyarkhan in
> sonofusion research based on erroneous reasoning that
> the collapse of vapor bubble produces high temperatures.
> However, far more money has been spent on sonofusion
> (bubble fusion) over the last decade, most funded by the
> US taxpayer. To make matters worse, proponents of
> sonofusion have criticized Nature because of the
> allegation of misused funds. See ?Reich or Wrong ?
> Nature on the attack?,
> http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~bdj10/propaganda/taleyarkhan.html
>
> But sonofusion
> proponents are in serious error. Indeed, the entire
> notion of bubble fusion is a fraud played on the US
> taxpayer. Perhaps the greatest hoax in the history of
> science should instead be funded from the pockets of
> bubble fusion proponents such as Putterman,Taleyarkhan,
> and others.
>
> PENDING LEGISLATION
>
> In this regard,
> legislation pending in Congress is directed to why it is
> vitally important for the USPTO to be able to correct
> patents like those in bubble fusion and sonochemistry
> even after they have been issued. Of interest here is
> that third party inventors are to be directly involved
> and allowed to introduce appropriate evidence in the
> reexamination process. See "Patent Quality Improvement:
> Post-Grant Opposition, Hearing before the Subcommittee
> on the Courts, the Internet, and Intellectual Property  
> of the Committee on the Judiciary House of
> Representatives." -  
> http://www.judiciary.house.gov/media/pdfs/printers/108th/94459.pdf
>
> However, the pending
> legislation is harmless because it requires a patent
> review be made not later than nine months after the
> grant of the patent or issuance or a reissue patent, and
> therefore patents issued by the USPTO over the last half
> century would still remain as false prior art.
>
> USPTO AND BUBBLE
> FUSION AND CONSEQUENCES
>
> Since 1970, the USPTO
> by accepting the erroneous explanation that the SL light
> was caused by high temperatures has awarded US patent in
> sonochemistry and bubble fusion on false prior art.
>
> For example, the
> USPTO issued bubble fusion patent to Hugh Flynn of the
> University of Rochester in 1970. See US 4,333,796:
> "Method of generating energy by acoustically induced
> cavitation fusion and reactor therefor." More recently,
> the USPTO awarded American Technologies Group researcher
> Shui-Yin Lo a bubble fusion patent in 1997. In the same
> year, the USPTO on claims of bubble temperatures of 100
> million degrees granted Seth Putterman of UCLA a patent
> for a bubble fusion. See US 5,659,173: Converting
> acoustic energy into useful other energy forms.
>
> In March 2006,
> allegations of fraud in bubble fusion research by
> Taleyarkhan at Purdue University were reported. See
> "Purdue to Review Bubble Fusion" ?
> http://www.free-press-release.com/news/200603/1142567086.html
> . Not widely reported, however, was that the US patent
> office (USPTO) rejected Taleyarkhan's bubble-fusion
> patent application filed at Oak Ridge in 2002 on behalf
> of the Department of Energy (DOE). See "A sound
> investment?"
> http://www.geocities.com/qedpressrelease/sound.html and
> "Once is happenstance" ?
> http://www.geocities.com/qedpressrelease/happenchance.html.
>
> On 20 June 2006,
> Purdue University concluded their investigation of fraud
> allegations against Taleyarkhan saying, the ?matter will
> be handled as a confidential internal affair.? See
> sonofusion research examination committee completes
> review in ?Sonofusion research examination committee
> completes review?
> htttp://www.Pesn.com/2006/06/20/9500283\_Purdue\_completes\_sonofusion\_review/
> and
> ?Purdue wraps Sonofusion inquiry results?
> http://www.photonics.com/content/news/2006/June/21/83135.aspx
>
> However, the Purdue
> statement avoids the larger problem that the USPTO
> issued bubble fusion and sonochemistry patents that
> remain outstanding even though neutrons have never been
> found in bubble fusion and sonochemical and bubble
> fusion reactor walls have never melted at claimed
> temperatures of 5,000 to 2 million degrees, and
> therefore the issued patents remain on the USPTO record
> as prior art from which any patent application based on
> an alternative explanation of the SL light is summarily
> rejected.
>
> USPTO FRAUDULENT
> REJECTION OF FIRST PATENT APPLICATION
>
> On 25 September 2002,
> a First Patent Application 10/179,641 titled ?Cavity QED
> Devices? was filed that claimed SL was produced at
> ambient temperature by cavity QED induced EM radiation.
> On 23 October 2003, the USPTO rejected the First
> Application on the grounds of prior art that SL was
> produced at high temperature.
>
> FCA COMPLAINT  
> source: FPR
>
> Because of the
> fraudulent reasons for rejection, an FCA action was
> filed in the DC court on 4 March 2004. However, on 19
> April 2005, the FCA case was transferred to the
> Alexandria court for lack of venue.
>
> SECOND PATENT
> APPLICATION AND REJECTION
>
> On 6 May 2004 while
> the FCA litigation was pending in the DC court, a Second
> Patent Application 10/839,831 titled ?Cavity QED Induced
> EM Radiation? that differed from the First Application
> in that the concept of the presence of particles, which
> limited the minimum size of the QED cavity could reach
> when collapsing, was modified. On 20 May 2005, the USPTO
> summarily rejected the Second Application on the same
> false grounds as the First.
>
> DISMISSAL OF FCA
> COMPLAINT AND IRREGULARITIES
>
> On 16 June 2005, the
> Alexandria court dismissed the FCA complaint on the
> grounds the action was taken in the name of the US
> government against the USPTO - another government
> agency, and as such is an action against itself. The
> dismissal of the FCA complaint was not disputed.
>
> The Alexandria court
> also denied the motion for leave to amend the FCA
> complaint with a Bivens action that would have allowed
> the USPTO to be sued for damages. However, the proposed
> Bivens complaint, which was critical in order for the
> court to rule properly on the motion, was never
> transferred from the DC court. The grounds for the
> Alexandria court denying the motion for leave to amend
> were that the USPTO acted in an official capacity when
> they rejected the First and Second patent applications.
> See "Fraud in US Patent Office perpetrates perhaps the
> greatest hoax in the history of science" ?
> http://www.free-press-release.com/news/200505/1117575404.html.
>
> What this means is
> due process was violated because the Alexandria court
> proceedings commenced without ever receiving the
> proposed Bivens complaint as this document was never
> transferred from the DC court to the Alexandria court.
>
> The USPTO
> administrative remedy was to appeal the rejection to the
> Patent Appeals Board, but this would have been futile
> because the USPTO Director, one of the FCA defendants,
> chaired the Patent Appeals Board. Thus, the
> administrative remedy was a conflict of interest in that
> the USPTO was required to rule against itself, and
> therefore the FCA complaint was filed.
>
> FOURTH CIRCUIT
> COURT OFAPPEALS AFFIRMATION AND WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO
> SUPREME COURT
>
> On 24 May 2006, the
> Fourth Circuit appeals court affirmed the Alexandria
> court decision and on 15 August 2006, the Fourth circuit
> order was appealed to the US Supreme Court for writ of
> certiorari. The writ of Certiorari absent appendices is
> given in:
> http://www.geocities.com/qedpressrelease/USsupreme.pdf
>
> A brief summary of
> the questions presented is as follows.
>
> QUESTIONS PRESENTED
> FOR SUPREME COURT REVIEW
>
> 1.Whether the Federal
> courts should allow Bivens actions alleging fraud within
> the USPTO until Congress enacts legislation to resolve
> the conflict of interest in the Patent Appeals Board
> ruling against itself in administrative remedies, and
>
> 2.Whether Congress
> should change pending Patent Quality Improvement
> legislation to allow the challenge of issued patents of
> questionable validity irrespective of the date of issue,
> and
>
> 3.Whether the instant
> case should be remanded to the Alexandria court with
> instructions to hear the petitioner?s motion for leave
> to amend the FCA complaint with a Bivens action because
> the proceedings were commenced before all of the
> documents in the DC court were transferred to the
> Alexandria court.
>
> CONCLUSION
>
> The US Supreme Court
> is expected to do the right thing and remand the case to
> the Alexandria court for hearing the motion for leave to
> amend the FCA complaint against the USPTO with a Bivens
> action. The US taxpayer over the past decade is becoming
> impatient with supporting the hoax of bubble fusion.
>
> For more information:  
> US Mail: PO Box 515, Youngwood, PA 15697  
> Email:thomas\_prevenslik@yahoo.com

 


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