Randell Mills: Hydrinos (Lower-Energy Hydrogen), US Patent #
6,024,935, etc.

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**[rexresearch.com](../index.htm)**

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**Randell MILLS**

**Hydrinos**

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**[Dow Jones News Wire (October 6, 1999)](#dow)**
 **[Randell Mills: US Patent # 6,024,935 ~
Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods & Structures](#6024)**  **[R. Mills WO Patent # 92/10838 ~ Energy/Matter
Conversion Methods &](#wo92)   
[Structures](#wo92)**  **[European Patent Office List of
Mills/Blacklight Patents](#espace)**  **[Discussion Group Links](#links)**  **[Press Article Links](#press)**

**<http://www.blacklightpower.com>
--- BlackLight Power Website**

---

***Dow Jones NewsWires*
(October 6, 1999)**

**"Researcher
Claims
Power
Tech That Defies Quantum Theory"**

By Erik Baard (NY) -- A
researcher based in New Jersey is presenting to a gathering of
chemists in Ontario, Calif., Wednesday the science that he
says will underpin a multi-billion dollar energy and materials
company.

The catch is that his theory
- that hydrogen atoms can be shrunk in a stable form - is an
impossibility in the established understanding of quantum
physics. Still, Dr. Randell Mills, a Harvard
University-trained medical doctor who has done postgraduate
studies in physics and chemistry, isn't going it alone. His
start-up, BlackLight Power Inc. of Cranbury, New Jersey, has
received support and advice from utilities Conectiv (CIV) and
PacifiCorp (PPW) and from Morgan Stanley Dean Witter & Co.
(MWD). Other major companies are waiting in the wings, Dr.
Mills claimed.

"We have stayed supportive
of this in the face of fairly significant scientists saying it
can't be," a senior executive with Morgan Stanley Dean Witter,
who asked that he not be identified, told Dow Jones Newswires.
Pending further verification and commercial commitments,
Morgan Stanley Dean Witter plans to usher BlackLight Power to
an initial public offering within two years, the executive
said. The investment bank will be an underwriter and hasn't
put its own money into the start-up, the executive said, but
another source close to the situation said Morgan Stanley Dean
Witter had made an overture to that end.

Dr. Mills claimed the
process of transforming hydrogen atoms into smaller "hydrinos"
by chemical catalysis will provide "a virtually unlimited
supply of energy" through distributed power turbines. The
hydrinos themselves combine with other elements, he said, to
make compounds that could be the basis for batteries to power
cars 1,000 miles at highway speeds before recharging; a
plastic that conducts electricity and shares magnetic
qualities with iron; and super-strong coatings, among other
things. There could be "potentially thousands, if not
millions" of novel compounds, he said. He also said that
compounds such as the ones BlackLight Power is creating
account for the more than 90% of the mass of the universe that
scientists say is so far unobservable.

Dr. Mills hasn't made
acceptance easy for himself or his sponsors by claiming he has
found the holy grail of a grand unified theory of classical
quantum mechanics and that the effect of his work on humanity
will be "bigger than fire." Indeed, Steven Chu, a Nobel
Prize-winning physicist at Stanford University, said in
September "it's extremely unlikely that this is real, and I
feel sorry for the funders, the people who are backing this."
Dr. Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist at City College of
New York cited another time-honored law that might apply to
BlackLight Power investors: "There's a sucker born every
minute."

The American Chemical
Society forum is the first open peer review of BlackLight
Power's findings, while mainstream quantum mechanics,
scientists point out, has evolved from decades of tests and
analysis. BlackLight Power has sent its work out for numerous
tests at independent laboratories over the past several years
and has seen positive results, Dr. Mills said. Conectiv is
"really on the optimistic side," albeit "cautiously" so, said
David Blake, Conectiv vice president and BlackLight Power
board member. "It's getting more and more difficult to argue
with the results Dr. Mills is presenting and the validations
he is starting to accrue," Blake said. Both Dr. Mills and
Conectiv's Blake say "two major corporations" are currently
testing crystals provided by the labs, but they declined to
name them.

"These folks are spending
their time and energy, and the money it takes to pay technical
people, on this. You don't do that unless you've got some
  
inclination that you'd better
look at this," Blake said. But are Conectiv and PacifiCorp
making a "Hail Mary pass" in a once stolid industry thrown
  
into turmoil by deregulation?
"Utilities...especially on the second tier, like Conectiv and
PacifiCorp, are really looking for edges because they don't
have the size and scope" of mega-utilities that are forming
through mergers all around them, said Robert Rubin, a
utilities analyst with Bear Sterns Cos. in New York.
Shareholders will forgive managers for making a few odd bets
because "the payoff could be huge," Rubin said. Still,
"there's a difference between investing $2.5 million and $250
million".

"Randy has had no trouble
raising the funds he needs," the Morgan Stanley Dean Witter
executive said.

Dr. Mills confirmed that the
company had $10 million, largely from the two utilities, and
equipment and property bringing its capital up to about
  
$30 million. BlackLight Power
will present about 10 compounds to the American Chemical
Society and "five papers that give explicit details and
  
is absolutely reproducible,"
Dr. Mills said. "I have a unified field theory that's
absolutely testable at every stage and on every item."

"Thank God we're getting our
day in court," Dr. Mills said. Also speaking at the meeting
about the reported hydrogen energy release, in the form of
  
visible and ultra-violet
light, is Dr. Johannes Conrads, who retired last week as the
director of the Institute for Low Temperature Plasma Physics
  
at the Ernst Moritz Arndt
University in Greifswald, Germany.

The BlackLight Power
research done at the institute was funded by the company, but
"my research was completely independent," said Dr. Conrads,
  
who has studied plasma since
1959 and has worked for NASA and taught at Princeton
University. Dr. Conrads has flown to the society's meeting in
  
California to report that
he's seen "a few astonishing things" from the hydrino process,
he said. "Something from the Mills cell is releasing   
energy, and remarkably high
energy, that is clear," Dr. Conrads said. Equally compelling
is that energy in the Mills cell decays at a rate   
independent of the removal of
outside electricity, and the reaction works only with
BlackLight Power's catalyst, he said. But Dr. Conrads stops
  
short of vindicating the
hydrino theory.

"None of my experiments so
far is falsifying Randy's theory, but unfortunately none of my
experiments is verifying it, either," Dr. Conrads said. Dr.
Conrads said he's taking his time to examine Dr. Mills' theory
because "this is not for sensation. I am an old professor in
physics." Dr. Conrad, who emphasized his lack of credentials
as a materials scientist, said he has sought Dr. Mill's
permission to invite peers at DaimlerChrysler AG (DCX) to
examine the hydrino crystals. Dr. Conrads parts with Dr. Mills
somewhat by standing with traditional quantum mechanics as it
applies to the ground state that the Mills theory claims to
breach. But Dr. Conrads says he could see Dr. Mills work as a
chemical approach to the new science of non-ideal plasmas.
This unusual plasma is composed of charged particles at low
temperatures and as densely packed as a solid, he said.
Indications are that in such an environment, conventional
quantum rules might not apply, he said. With more sensitive
equipment, however, he expects to find stronger evidence for
"fractional" hydrogen, he said.

"Everyone was telling us
that heat was too nebulous," Dr. Mills said. To put his work
on more solid ground, he manufactured hydrino-based crystals
  
in mass, he said. "The
hydride ion cracked the nut, right there, that did it," he
said. BlackLight Power's laboratory cabinets are stacked with
vials of crystals of varied colors and forms. Other scientists
have been supportive. On the BlackLight Power board sits Dr.
Shelby Brewer, a nuclear engineer and physicist who is also
the former chief executive of ABB Combustion Engineering and
an assistant secretary in the U.S. Department of Energy from
1981 to 1984. Dr. Melvin H. Miles, an electro-chemist
researching batteries at the U.S. Navy facility in China Lake,
Calif., said the BlackLight crystals put Dr. Mills "way ahead
of cold fusion in that he has a tangible product to show
people."

"Randy Mills impressed me
that he may also be brilliant. He talks off the top of his
head in a way that other scientists can't. But that doesn't
mean he's right. I think his results are right, but doesn't
mean his theory is right," Miles said.

**Randell Mills**   
![](mills.jpeg)  
 (Photo Credit: Robin Holland)

---

  
  
**US Patent # 6,024,935**   
**(February 15, 2000)**

**Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods and
Structures**

**by Randell Mills, et al.**

European Patent Office PDF Version (The US Patent Office online
HTML version does not show the formulas):   
http://l2.espacenet.com/espacenet/bnsviewer?CY=ep&LG=en&DB=EPD&PN=US6024935&ID=US+++6024935A1+I+

**Abstract ~**

Methods and apparatus for releasing energy from hydrogen atoms
(molecules) by stimulating their electrons to relax to quantized
lower energy levels and smaller radii (smaller semimajor and
semiminor axes) than the "ground state" by providing energy
sinks or means to remove energy resonant with the hydrogen
energy released to stimulate these transitions. An energy sink,
energy hole, can be provided by the transfer of at least one
electron between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
or more donating species to one or more accepting species
whereby the sum of the ionization energies and/or electron
affinities of the electron donating species minus the sum of the
ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron
accepting species equals approximately mX27.21 eV (mX48.6 eV)
for atomic (molecular) hydrogen below "ground state" transitions
where m and t are integers. The present invention further
comprises a hydrogen spillover catalyst, a multifunctionality
material having a functionality which dissociates molecular
hydrogen to provide free hydrogen atoms which spill over to a
functionality which supports mobile free hydrogen atoms and a
functionality which can be a source of the energy holes. The
energy reactor includes one of an electrolytic cell, a
pressurized hydrogen gas cell, and a hydrogen gas discharge
cell. A preferred pressurized hydrogen gas energy reactor
comprises a vessel; a source of hydrogen; a means to control the
pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a material to
dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen, and a
material which can be a source of energy holes in the gas phase.
The gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime,
boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature
of the gas energy reactor wherein the exothermic reaction of
electronic transitions of hydrogen to lower energy states occurs
in the gas phase.

**Inventors:  Mills, Randell L.** (Malvern, PA); **Good,
William R.** (Wayne, PA); **Phillips, Jonathan** (State
College, PA); Popov; Arthur I. (Philadelphia, PA)   
Assignee:  Blacklight Power, Inc. (Cranbury, NJ)   
Appl. No.:  822170 ~ Filed:  March 21, 1997

Current U.S. Class: 423/648.1; 422/129   
Intern'l Class:  C01B 003/02   
Field of Search:  423/648.1 422/129

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Primary Examiner: Langel; Wayne   
Attorney, Agent or Firm: Melcher; Jeffrey S. Farkas &
Manelli PLLC

**Claims**

We claim: [ 499 Claims, not included here ]

**Description**

**BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION**

**1. Field of the Invention**

This invention relates to methods and apparatus for releasing
energy from hydrogen atoms (molecules) as their electrons are
stimulated to relax to lower energy levels and smaller radii
(smaller semimajor and semiminor axes) than the "ground state"
by providing a transition catalyst which acts as an energy sink
or means to remove energy resonant with the electronic energy
released to stimulate these transitions according to a novel
atomic model. The transition catalyst should not be consumed in
the reaction. It accepts energy from hydrogen and releases the
energy to the surroundings. Thus, the transition catalyst
returns to the origin state. Processes that require collisions
are common. For example, the exothermic chemical reaction of H+H
to form H.sub.2 requires a collision with a third body, M, to
remove the bond energy-H+H+M.fwdarw.H.sub.2 +M. The third body
distributes the energy from the exothermic reaction, and the end
result is the H.sub.2 molecule and an increase in the
temperature of the system. Similarly, the transition from the
n=1 state of hydrogen to the ##EQU1## states of hydrogen is
possible via a resonant collision, say n=1 to n=1/2. In these
cases, during the collision the electron(s) couples to another
electron transition or electron transfer reaction, for example,
which can absorb the exact amount of energy that must be removed
from the hydrogen atom (molecule), a resonant energy sink. The
end result is a lower-energy state for the hydrogen and increase
in temperature of the system. Each of such reactions is
hereafter referred to as a shrinkage reaction: each transition
is hereafter referred to as a shrinkage transition; each energy
sink or means to remove energy resonant with the hydrogen
electronic energy released to effect each transition is
hereafter referred to as an energy hole, and the electronic
energy removed by the energy hole to effect or stimulate the
shrinkage transition is hereafter referred to as the resonance
shrinkage energy. An energy hole comprising a reactant ion that
is spontaneously regenerated following an endothermic electron
ionization reaction of energy equal to the resonance shrinkage
energy is hereafter referred to as an electrocatalytic ion. An
energy hole comprising two reactants that are spontaneously
regenerated following the an endothermic electron transfer
reaction between the two species wherein the differences in
their ionization energies is equal to the resonance shrinkage
energy is hereafter referred to as an electrocatalytic couple.

The present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor,
pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy
reactor, comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid,
molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel
containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the
shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the
source of energy holes; and a means for removing, the
(molecular) lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent an exothermic
shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium. The present
invention further comprises methods and structures for repeating
this shrinkage reaction to produce shrunken atoms (molecules) to
provide new materials with novel properties such as high thermal
stability.

**2. Description of the Related Art**

Existing atomic models and theories are unable to explain
certain observed physical phenomena. The Schrodinger
wavefunctions of the hydrogen atom, for example, do not explain
the extreme ultraviolet emission spectrum of the interstellar
medium or that of the Sun, as well as the phenomenon of
anomalous heat release from hydrogen in certain electrolytic
cells having a potassium carbonate electrolyte or certain gas
energy cells having a hydrogen spillover catalyst comprising
potassium nitrate with the production of lower-energy hydrogen
atoms and molecules, which is part of the present invention.
Thus, advances in energy production and materials have been
largely limited to laboratory discoveries having limited or
sub-optimal commercial application.

**SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION**

The present invention comprises methods and apparatuses for
releasing heat energy from hydrogen atoms (molecules) by
stimulating their electrons to relax to quantized potential
energy levels below that of the "ground state" via electron
transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical
reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which remove
energy from the hydrogen atoms (molecules) to stimulate these
transitions. In addition, this application includes methods and
apparatuses to enhance the power output by enhancing the
reaction rate- the rate of the formation of the lower-energy
hydrogen. The present invention further comprises a hydrogen
spillover catalyst, a multifunctionality material having a
functionality which dissociates molecular hydrogen to provide
free hydrogen atoms which spill over to a functionality which
supports mobile free hydrogen atoms and a functionality which
can be a source of the energy holes. The energy reactor includes
one of an electrolytic cell, a pressurized hydrogen gas cell,
and a hydrogen gas discharge cell.

A preferred pressurized hydrogen gas energy reactor comprises a
vessel; a source of hydrogen; a means to control the pressure
and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a material to dissociate
the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen, and a material
which can be a source of energy holes in the gas phase. The
gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime,
boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature
of the gas energy reactor wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs
in the gas phase.

The present invention further comprises methods and apparatuses
for repeating a shrinkage reaction according to the present
invention to cause energy release and to provide shrunken atoms
and molecules with novel properties such as high thermal
stability, and low reactivity. The lower-energy state atoms and
molecules are useful for heat transfer, cryogenic applications,
as a buoyant gas. as a medium in an engine such as a Sterling
engine or a turbine, as a general replacement for helium, and as
a refrigerant by absorbing energy including heat energy as the
electrons are excited back to a higher energy level.

**Below "Ground State" Transitions of Hydrogen Atoms ~**

A novel atomic theory is disclosed in Mills, R., The Grand
Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic
Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa. provided by HydroCatalysis
Power Corporation, Great Valley Corporate Center, 41 Great
Valley Parkway, Malvern, Pa. 19355; The Unification of
Spacetime, the Forces, Matter, and Energy, Mills, R., Technomic
Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., (1992); The Grand Unified
Theory, Mills, R. and Farrell, J., Science Press, Ephrata, Pa.,
(1990); Mills, R., Kneizys, S., Fusion Technology, 210, (1991),
pp. 65-81; Mills, R., Good, W., Shaubach, R., "Dihydrino
Molecule Identification", Fusion Technology, 25, 103 (1994);
Mills, R., Good, W., "Fractional Quantum Energy Levels of
Hydrogen", Fusion Technology, Vol. 28. No. 4, November, (1995),
pp. 1697-1719, and in my previous U.S. patent applications
entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser.
No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on
Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser.
No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt.
99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628
filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application
of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989 which are all
incorporated herein by this reference.

**Fractional Quantum Energy Levels of Hydrogen ~**

A number of experimental observations given in the Experimental
Section below lead to the conclusion that atomic hydrogen can
exist in fractional quantum states that are at lower energies
than the traditional "ground" (n=1) state. For example,
existence of fractional-quantum-energy-level hydrogen atoms,
hereafter called hydrinos, provides an explanation for the soft
X-ray emissions of the dark interstellar medium observed by
Labov and Bowyer [S. Labov and S. Bowyer, Astrophysical Journal,
371 (1991) 810] and an explanation for the soft X-ray emissions
of the Sun [Thomas, R. J., Neupert, W., M., Astrophysical
Journal Supplement Series, Vol. 91, (1994), pp. 461-482;
Malinovsky, M., Heroux, L., Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 181,
(1973), pp. 1009-1030; Noyes, R., The Sun, Our Star, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Ma., (1982), p. 172; Phillips, J.
H., Guide to the Sun, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
Great Britain, (1992), pp. 118-119; 120-121; 144-145].

J. J. Balmer showed in 1885 that the frequencies for some of
the lines observed in the emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen
could be expressed with a completely empirical relationship.
This approach was later extended by J. R. Rydberg, who showed
that all of the spectral lines of atomic hydrogen were given by
the equation: ##EQU2## where R=109,677 cm.sup.-1, n.sub.f
=1,2,3, . . . , n.sub.i =2,3,4, . . . , and n.sub.i >n.sub.f.
Niels Bohr, in 1913, developed a theory for atomic hydrogen that
gave energy levels in agreement with Rydberg's equation. An
identical equation, based on a totally different theory for the
hydrogen atom, was developed by E. Schrodinger, and
independently by W. Heisenberg, in 1926. ##EQU3## where a.sub.H
is the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the
magnitude of the charge of the electron, and .epsilon..sub.o is
the vacuum permittivity. Mills' theory predicts that Eq. (2b),
should be replaced by Eq. (2c). ##EQU4##

The quantum number n=1 is routinely used to describe the
"ground" electronic state of the hydrogen atom. Mills [Mills,
R., *The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics*,
(1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.] in a
recent advancement of quantum mechanics has shown that the n=1
state is the "ground" state for "pure" photon transitions (the
n=1 state can absorb a photon and go to an excited electronic
state, but it cannot release a photon and go to a lower-energy
electronic state). However, an electron transition from the
ground state to a lower-energy state is possible by a "resonant
collision" mechanism. These lower-energy states have fractional
quantum numbers, ##EQU5## Processes that occur without photons
and that require collisions are common. For example, the
exothermic chemical reaction of H+H to form H.sub.2 does not
occur with the emission of a photon. Rather, the reaction
requires a collision with a third body, M, to remove the bond
energy-H+H+M.fwdarw.H.sub.2 +M. The third body distributes the
energy from the exothermic reaction, and the end result is the
H.sub.2 molecule and an increase in the temperature of the
system. Similarly, the n=1 state of hydrogen and the ##EQU6##
states of hydrogen are nonradiative, but a transition between
two nonradiative states is possible via a resonant collision,
say n=1 to n=1/2. In these cases, during the collision the
electron couples to another electron transition or electron
transfer reaction which can absorb the exact amount of energy
that must be removed from the hydrogen atom, a resonant energy
sink called an energy hole. The end result is a lower-energy
state for the hydrogen and increase in temperature of the
system.

**Wave Equation Solutions of the Hydrogen Atom ~**

Recently, Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of
Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing
Company, Lancaster, Pa.] has built on the work generally known
as quantum mechanics by deriving a new atomic theory based on
first principles. The novel theory hereafter referred to as
Mills' theory unifies Maxwell's Equations, Newton's Laws, and
Einstein's General and Special Relativity. The central feature
of this theory is that all particles (atomic-size and
macroscopic particles) obey the same physical laws. Whereas
Schrodinger postulated a boundary condition: .PSI..fwdarw.0 as
r.fwdarw..infin., the boundary condition in Mills' theory was
derived from Maxwell's equations [Haus, H. A., "On the radiation
from point charges", American Journal of Physics, 54, (1986),
pp. 1126-1129.]:

For non-radiative states, the current-density function must not
possess space-time Fourier components that are synchronous with
waves traveling at the speed of light.

Application of this boundary condition leads to a physical
model of particles, atoms, molecules, and, in the final
analysis, cosmology. The closed-form mathematical solutions
contain fundamental constants only, and the calculated values
for physical quantities agree with experimental observations. In
addition, the theory predicts that Eq. (2b), should be replaced
by Eq. (2c).

Bound electrons are described by a charge-density
(mass-density) function which is the product of a radial delta
function (f(r)=.delta.(r-r.sub.n)), two angular functions
(spherical harmonic functions), and a time harmonic function.
Thus, an electron is a spinning, two-dimensional spherical
surface, hereafter called an electron orbitsphere, that can
exist in a bound state at only specified distances from the
nucleus. More explicitly, the orbitsphere comprises a two
dimensional spherical shell of moving charge. The corresponding
current pattern of the orbitsphere comprises an infinite series
of correlated orthogonal great circle current loops. The current
pattern (shown in FIG. 1.4 of Mills [Mills, R., *The Grand
Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics*, (1995),
Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.]) is generated over
the surface by two orthogonal sets of an infinite series of
nested rotations of two orthogonal great circle current loops
where the coordinate axes rotate with the two orthogonal great
circles. Each infinitesimal rotation of the infinite series is
about the new x-axis and new y-axis which results from the
preceding such rotation. For each of the two sets of nested
rotations, the angular sum of the rotations about each rotating
x-axis and y-axis totals .sqroot.2 .pi. radians. The current
pattern gives rise to the phenomenon corresponding to the spin
quantum number.

The total function that describes the spinning motion of each
electron orbitsphere is composed of two functions. One function,
the spin function, is spatially uniform over the orbitsphere,
spins with a quantized angular velocity, and gives rise to spin
angular momentum. The other function, the modulation function,
can be spatially uniform -- in which case there is no orbital
angular momentum and the magnetic moment of the electron
orbitsphere is one Bohr magneton -- or not spatially uniform --
in which case there is orbital angular momentum. The modulation
function also rotates with a quantized angular velocity.
Numerical values for the angular velocity, radii of allowed
orbitspheres. energies, and associated quantities are calculated
by Mills.

Orbitsphere radii are calculated by setting the centripetal
force equal to the electric and magnetic forces.

The orbitsphere is a resonator cavity which traps photons of
discrete frequencies. The radius of an orbitsphere increases
with the absorption of electromagnetic energy. The solutions to
Maxwell's equations for modes that can be excited in the
orbitsphere resonator cavity give rise to four quantum numbers,
and the energies of the modes are the experimentally known
hydrogen spectrum.

Excited states are unstable because the charge-density function
of the electron plus photon have a radial doublet function
component which corresponds to an electric dipole. The doublet
possesses spacetime Fourier components synchronous with waves
traveling at the speed of light; thus it is radiative. The
charge-density function of the electron plus photon for the n=1
principle quantum state of the hydrogen atom as well as for each
of the ##EQU7## states mathematically is purely a radial delta
function. The delta function does not possess spacetime Fourier
components synchronous with waves traveling at the speed of
light; thus, each is nonradiative.

**Catalytic Lower-energy Hydrogen Electronic Transitions ~**

Comparing transitions between below "ground" (fractional
quantum) energy states as opposed to transitions between excited
(integer quantum) energy states, it can be appreciated that the
former are not effected by photons; whereas, the latter are.
Transitions are symmetric with respect to time. Current density
functions which give rise to photons according to the
nonradiative boundary condition of Mills [Mills, R., The Grand
Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic
Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.] are created by photons in
the reverse process. Excited (integer quantum) energy states
correspond to this case. And, current density functions which do
not give rise to photons according to the nonradiative boundary
condition are not created by photons in the reverse process.
Below "ground" (fractional quantum) energy states correspond to
this case. But, atomic collisions can cause a stable state to
undergo a transition to the next stable state. The transition
between two stable nonradiative states effected by a collision
with an resonant energy sink is analogous to the reaction of two
atoms to form a diatomic molecule which requires a third-body
collision to remove the bond energy [N. V. Sidgwick, The
Chemical Elements and Their Compounds, Volume I, Oxford,
Clarendon Press, (1950), p. 17].

**Energy Hole Concept**

The nonradiative boundary condition of Mills and the
relationship between the electron and the photon give the
"allowed" hydrogen energy states which are quantized as a
function of the parameter n. Each value of n corresponds to an
allowed transition effected by a resonant photon which excites
the electronic transition. In addition to the traditional
integer values (1, 2, 3, . . . ,) of n, values of fractions are
allowed which correspond to transitions with an increase in the
central field (charge) and decrease in the size of the hydrogen
atom. This occurs, for example, when the electron couples to
another electronic transition or electron transfer reaction
which can absorb energy, an energy sink. This is the absorption
of an energy hole. The absorption of an energy hole destroys the
balance between the centrifugal force and the increased central
electric force. As a result, the electron undergoes a transition
to a lower energy nonradiative state.

From energy conservation, the resonance energy hole of a
hydrogen atom which excites resonator modes of radial dimensions
##EQU8## is

mX27.2 eV where m=1,2,3,4, . . . (3)

After resonant absorption of the energy hole, the radius of the
orbitsphere, a.sub.H, shrinks to ##EQU9## and after p cycles of
resonant shrinkage, the radius is ##EQU10## In other words, the
radial ground state field can be considered as the superposition
of Fourier components. The removal of negative Fourier
components of energy mX27.2 eV, where m is an integer increases
the positive central electric field inside the spherical shell
by m times the charge of a proton. The resultant electric field
is a time-harmonic solution of Laplace's Equations in spherical
coordinates. In this case, the radius at which force balance and
nonradiation are achieved is ##EQU11## where m is an integer. In
decaying to this radius from the "ground" state, a total energy
of [(m+1).sup.2 -1.sup.2 ]X13.6 eV is released. The transition
between two stable nonradiative states effected by a collision
with an energy hole is analogous to the reaction of two atoms to
form a diatomic molecule which requires a third body collision
to remove the bond energy [N. V. Sidgwick, The Chemical Elements
and Their Compounds, Volume I, Oxford, Clarendon Press, (1950),
p. 17]. The total energy well of the hydrogen atom is shown in
FIG. 1. The exothermic reaction involving transitions from one
potential energy level to a lower level is hereafter referred to
as HydroCatalysis.

A hydrogen atom with its electron in a lower than "ground
state" energy level corresponding to a fractional quantum number
is hereafter referred to as a hydrino atom. The designation for
a hydrino atom of radius ##EQU12## where p is an integer is
##EQU13##

The size of the electron orbitsphere as a function of potential
energy is given in FIG. 2.

An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of
three resonator cavities involves potassium. For example, the
second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63 eV. This energy
hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However,
K.sup.+ releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced to K. The
combination of K.sup.+ to K.sup.2+ and K.sup.+ to K, then, has a
net energy change of 27.28 eV. ##EQU14## And, the overall
reaction is ##EQU15## Note that the energy given off as the atom
shrinks is much greater than the energy lost to the energy hole.
Also, the energy released is large compared to conventional
chemical reactions.

**Disproportionation of Energy States**

Lower-energy hydrogen atoms, hydrinos, can act as a source of
energy holes that can cause resonant shrinkage because the
excitation and/or ionization energies are mX27.2 eV (Eq. (3)).
For example, the equation for the absorption of an energy hole
of 27.21 eV, m=1 in Eq. (3), during the shrinkage cascade for
the third cycle of the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU16## with the
hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU17## that is ionized as the source of
energy holes that cause resonant shrinkage is represented by
##EQU18## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU19## The general
equation for the absorption of an energy hole of 27.21 eV, m=1
in Eq. (3), during the shrinkage cascade for the pth cycle of
the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU20## with the hydrogen-type atom,
##EQU21## that is ionized as the source of energy holes that
cause resonant shrinkage is represented by ##EQU22## And, the
overall reaction is ##EQU23##

Transitions to nonconsecutive energy levels involving the
absorption of an energy hole of an integer multiple of 27.21 eV
are possible. Lower-energy hydrogen atoms, hydrinos, can act as
a source of energy holes that can cause resonant shrinkage with
the absorption of an energy hole of mX27.2 eV (Eq. (3)). Thus,
the shrinkage cascade for the pth cycle of the hydrogen-type
atom, ##EQU24## with the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU25## that is
ionized as the source of energy holes that cause resonant
shrinkage is represented by ##EQU26## And, the overall reaction
is ##EQU27##

Hydrogen is a source of energy holes. The ionization energy of
hydrogen is 13.6 eV. Disproportionation can occur between three
hydrogen atoms whereby two atoms provide an energy hole of 27.21
eV for the third hydrogen atom. Thus, the shrinkage cascade for
the pth cycle of the hydrogen-type atom, ##EQU28## with two
hydrogen atoms, ##EQU29## as the source of energy holes that
cause resonant shrinkage is represented by ##EQU30## And, the
overall reaction is ##EQU31## The spectral lines from dark
interstellar medium and the majority of the solar power can be
attributed to disproportionation reactions as given in the
Spectral Data of Hydrinos from the Dark Interstellar Medium and
from the Sun Section of Mills [Mills, R., *The Grand Unified
Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics*, (1995), Technomic
Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.]. This assignment resolves
the mystery of dark matter, the solar neutrino problem, and the
mystery of the cause of sunspots and other solar activity and
why the Sun emits X-rays. It also provides the reason for the
abrupt change in the speed of sound and transition from
"radiation zone" to "convection zone" at a radius of 0.7 the
solar radius, 0.7 R.sub.s as summarized in Example 4 below.

**Energy Hole (Atomic Hydrogen)**

In a preferred embodiment, energy holes, each of approximately
27.21 eV, are provided by electron transfer reactions of
reactants including electrochemical reactant(s)
(electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be
released from hydrogen atoms as their electrons are stimulated
to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the
"ground state". The energy removed by an electron transfer
reaction, energy hole, is resonant with the hydrogen energy
released to stimulate this transition. The source of hydrogen
atoms can be the production on the surface of a cathode during
electrolysis of water in the case of an electrolytic energy
reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a
pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.

**Below "Ground State" Transitions of Hydrogen-type Molecules
and Molecular Ions**

Two hydrogen atoms react to form a diatomic molecule, the
hydrogen molecule. ##EQU32## where 2c' is the internuclear
distance. Also, two hydrino atoms react to form a diatomic
molecule, hereafter called a dihydrino molecule. ##EQU33## where
p is an integer.

The central force equation for hydrogen-type molecules has
orbital solutions which are circular, elliptic, parabolic, or
hyperbolic. The former two types of solutions are associated
with atomic and molecular orbitals. These solutions are
nonradiative if the boundary condition for nonradiation given in
the One Electron Atom Section of The Unification of Spacetime,
the Forces, Matter, and Energy, Mills, R., Technomic Publishing
Company, Lancaster, Pa., (1992), is met. The mathematical
formulation for zero radiation is that the function that
describes the motion of the electron must not possess space-time
Fourier components that are synchronous with waves traveling at
the speed of light. The boundary condition for the orbitsphere
is met when the angular frequencies are ##EQU34## As
demonstrated in the One Electron Atom Section of *The
Unification of Spacetime, the Forces, Matter, and Energy*,
Mills, R., Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., (1992),
this condition is met for the product function of a radial Dirac
delta function and a time harmonic function where the angular
frequency, .omega., is constant and given by Eq. (21). ##EQU35##
where L is the angular momentum and A is the area of the closed
geodesic orbit. Consider the solution of the central force
equation comprising the product of a two dimensional ellipsoid
and a time harmonic function. The spatial part of the product
function is the convolution of a radial Dirac delta function
with the equation of an ellipsoid. The Fourier transform of the
convolution of two functions is the product of the individual
Fourier transforms of the functions: thus, the boundary
condition is met for an ellipsoidal-time harmonic function when
##EQU36## where the area of an ellipse is

A=.pi.ab (24)

where 2b is the length of the semiminor axis and 2a is the
length of the semimajor axis. The geometry of molecular hydrogen
is elliptic with the internuclear axis as the principle axis;
thus, the electron orbital is a two dimensional ellipsoidal-time
harmonic function. The mass follows geodesics time harmonically
as determined by the central field of the protons at the foci.
Rotational symmetry about the internuclear axis further
determines that the orbital is a prolate spheroid. In general,
ellipsoidal orbits of molecular bonding, hereafter referred to
as ellipsoidal molecular orbitals (M. O.'s), have the general
equation ##EQU37## The semiprinciple axes of the ellipsoid are
a, b, c.

In ellipsoidal coordinates the Laplacian is ##EQU38## An
ellipsoidal M. O. is equivalent to a charged conductor whose
surface is given by Eq. (25). It carries a total charge q, and
it's potential is a solution of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal
coordinates, Eq. (26).

Excited states of orbitspheres are discussed in the Excited
States of the One Electron Atom (Quantization) Section of *The
Unification of Spacetime, the Forces, Matter, and Energy*,
Mills, R., Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., (1992).
In the case of ellipsoidal M. O.'s, excited electronic states
are created when photons of discrete frequencies are trapped in
the ellipsoidal resonator cavity of the M. O. The photon changes
the effective charge at the M. O. surface where the central
field is ellipsoidal. Force balance is achieved at a series of
ellipsoidal equipotential two dimensional surfaces confocal with
the ground state ellipsoid. The trapped photons are solutions of
the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates, Eq. (26).

As is the case with the orbitsphere, higher and lower energy
states are equally valid. The photon standing wave in both cases
is a solution of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates. For
an ellipsoidal resonator cavity, the relationship between an
allowed circumference, 4aE, and the photon standing wavelength,
.lambda., is

4aE=n.lambda. (27)

where n is an integer and where ##EQU39## is used in the
elliptic integral E of Eq. (27). Applying Eqs. (27) and (28),
the relationship between an allowed angular frequency given by
Eq. (23) and the photon standing wave angular frequency,
.omega., is: ##EQU40## where n=1,2,3,4, . . . ##EQU41##
.omega..sub.1 is the allowed angular frequency for n=1 a.sub.1
and b.sub.1 are the allowed semimajor and semiminor axes for n=1

From Eq. (29), the magnitude of the elliptic field
corresponding to a below "ground state" transition of the
hydrogen molecule is an integer. The potential energy equations
of hydrogen-type molecules are ##EQU42## where ##EQU43## and
where p is an integer. From energy conservation, the resonance
energy hole of a hydrogen-type molecule which causes the
transition ##EQU44## where m and p are integers. During the
transition, the elliptic field is increased from magnitude p to
magnitude p+m. The corresponding potential energy change equals
the energy absorbed by the energy hole.

Energy hole=-V.sub.e -V.sub.p =mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV (37)

Further energy is released by the hydrogen-type molecule as the
internuclear distance "shrinks". The total energy, E.sub.T,
released during the transition is ##EQU45##

A schematic drawing of the total energy well of hydrogen-type
molecules and molecular ions is given in FIG. 3. The exothermic
reaction involving transitions from one potential energy level
to a lower level below the "ground state" is also hereafter
referred to as HydroCatalysis.

A hydrogen-type molecule with its electrons in a lower than
"ground state" energy level corresponding to a fractional
quantum number is hereafter referred to as a dihydrino molecule.
The designation for a dihydrino molecule of internuclear
distance, ##EQU46## where p is an integer, is ##EQU47## A
schematic drawing of the size of hydrogen-type molecules as a
function of total energy is given in FIG. 4.

The magnitude of the elliptic field corresponding to the first
below "ground state" hydrogen-type molecule is 2. From energy
conservation, the resonance energy hole of a hydrogen molecule
which excites the transition of the hydrogen molecule with
internuclear distance ##EQU48## to the first below "ground
state" with internuclear distance ##EQU49## is given by Eqs.
(30) and (31) where the elliptic field is increased from
magnitude one to magnitude two: ##EQU50##

In other words, the ellipsoidal "ground state" field of the
hydrogen molecule can be considered as the superposition of
Fourier components. The removal of negative Fourier components
of energy

mX48.6 eV (42)

where m is an integer, increases the positive electric field
inside the ellipsoidal shell by m times the charge of a proton
at each focus. The resultant electric field is a time harmonic
solution of the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates. The
hydrogen molecule with internuclear distance ##EQU51## is caused
to undergo a transition to a below "ground state" level, and the
internuclear distance for which force balance and nonradiation
are achieved is ##EQU52## In decaying to this internuclear
distance from the "ground state", a total energy of ##EQU53## is
released. Energy Hole (Molecular Hydrogen)

In a preferred embodiment, energy holes, each of approximately
mX48.6 eV, are provided by electron transfer reactions of
reactants including electrochemical reactant(s)
(electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause heat to be
released from hydrogen molecules as their electrons are
stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels below
that of the "ground state". The energy removed by an electron
transfer reaction, energy hole, is resonant with the hydrogen
energy released to stimulate this transition. The source of
hydrogen molecules can be the production on the surface of a
cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an
electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the
case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy
reactor.

**Energy Reactor**

The present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor,
pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy
reactor, comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid,
molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel
containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the
shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the
source of energy holes; and a means for removing the (molecular)
lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent the exothermic shrinkage
reaction from coming to equilibrium. The shrinkage reaction rate
and net power output are increased by conforming the energy hole
to match the resonance shrinkage energy. In general, power
output can be optimized by controlling the temperature, pressure
of the hydrogen gas, the source of the energy hole including the
electrocatalytic ion or couple which provides the energy hole,
the counterion of the electrocatalytic ion or couple, and the
area of the surface on which the shrinkage reaction occurs. The
present invention further comprises a hydrogen spillover
catalyst, a multifunctionality material having a functionality
which dissociates molecular hydrogen to provide free hydrogen
atoms which spill over to a functionality which supports mobile
free hydrogen atoms and a functionality which can be a source of
the energy holes.

A preferred pressurized hydrogen gas energy reactor comprises a
vessel; a source of hydrogen; a means to control the pressure
and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a material to dissociate
the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen, and a material
which can be a source of energy holes in the gas phase. The
gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime,
boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature
of the gas energy reactor wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs
in the gas phase.

Other objects, features, and characteristics of the present
invention, as well as the methods of operation and the functions
of the related elements, will become apparent upon consideration
of the following description and the appended claims with
reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form a part
of this specification, wherein like reference numerals designate
corresponding parts in the various figures.

**BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS**

FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of the total energy well of the
hydrogen atom;

![](6024d1.jpg)

FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing of the size of electron
orbitspheres as a function of potential energy;

![](6024d2.jpg)

FIG. 3 is a schematic drawing of the total energy wells of the
hydrogen molecule, H.sub.2 [2c'=.sqroot.2a.sub.o ], the hydrogen
molecular ion, H.sub.2 [2c'=2a.sub.o ].sup.+, the dihydrino
molecule, ##EQU54## and the dihydrino molecular ion,
H.sub.2.sup.\* [2c'=a.sub.o ].sup.+ ;

![](6024d3.jpg)

FIG. 4 is a schematic drawing of the size of hydrogen-type
molecules, ##EQU55## as a function of total energy;

![](6024d4.jpg)

FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing of an energy reactor in
accordance with the invention;

![](6024d5.jpg)

FIG. 6 is a schematic drawing of an electrolytic cell energy
reactor in accordance with the present invention;

![](6024d6.jpg)

FIG. 7 is a schematic drawing of a pressurized gas energy
reactor in accordance with the present invention;

![](6024d7.jpg)

FIG. 8 is a schematic drawing of a gas discharge energy reactor
in accordance with the invention; and

![](6024d8.jpg)

FIG. 9 is a plot of the excess heat release from flowing
hydrogen in the presence of nickel oxide powder containing
strontium niobium oxide (Nb.sup.3+ /Sr.sup.2+ electrocatalytic
couple) by the very accurate and reliable method of heat
measurement, thermopile conversion of heat into an electrical
output signal.

![](6024d9.jpg)

**DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PRESENTLY PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS**

**CATALYTIC ENERGY HOLE STRUCTURE FOR ATOMS**

**Single Electron Excited State ~**

An energy hole is provided by the transition of an electron of
a species to an excited state species including a continuum
excited state(s) of atoms, ions, molecules, and ionic and
molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy hole
comprises the excited state transition of an electron of one
species whereby the transition energy of the accepting species
equals approximately mX27.21 eV where m is an integer.

**Single Electron Transfer**

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of an electron
between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules,
and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy
hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one species to
another species whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the
electron donating species minus the ionization energy or
electron affinity of the electron accepting species equals
approximately mX27.21 eV where m is an integer.

**Single Electron Transfer (Two Species)**

An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of
three resonator cavities involves potassium. For example, the
second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63 eV. This energy
hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However,
K.sup.+ releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced to K. The
combination of K.sup.+ to K.sup.2+ and K.sup.+ to K, then, has a
net energy change of 27.28 eV; m=1 in Eq. (3). ##EQU56## And,
the overall reaction is ##EQU57## Note that the energy given off
as the atom shrinks is much greater than the energy lost to the
energy hole. And, the energy released is large compared to
conventional chemical reactions.

For sodium or sodium ions no electrocatalytic reaction of
approximately 27.21 eV is possible. For example, 42.15 eV of
energy is absorbed by the reverse of the reaction given in Eq.
(45) where Na.sup.+ replaces K.sup.+ :

Na.sup.+ +Na.sup.+ +42.15 eV.fwdarw.Na+Na.sup.2+ (47)

Other less efficient catalytic systems hinge on the coupling of
three resonator cavities. For example, the third ionization
energy of palladium is 32.93 eV. This energy hole is obviously
too high for resonant absorption. However, Li.sup.+ releases
5.392 eV when it is reduced to Li. The combination of Pd.sup.2+
to Pd.sup.3+ and Li.sup.+ to Li, then, has a net energy change
of 27.54 eV. ##EQU58## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU59##
Single Electron Transfer (One Species)

An energy hole is provided by the ionization of an electron
from a participating species including an atom, an ion, a
molecule, and an ionic or molecular compound to a vacuum energy
level. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the
ionization of an electron from one species to a vacuum energy
level whereby the ionization energy of the electron donating
species equals approximately mX27.21 eV where m is an integer.

Titanium is one of the catalysts (electrocatalytic ion) that
can cause resonant shrinkage because the third ionization energy
is 27.49 eV, m=1 in Eq. (3). Thus, the shrinkage cascade for the
pth cycle is represented by ##EQU60## And, the overall reaction
is ##EQU61##

Rubidium is also a catalyst (electrocatalytic ion). The second
ionization energy is 27.28 eV. ##EQU62## And, the overall
reaction is ##EQU63##

Other single electron transfer reactions to provide energy
holes of approximately mX27.21 eV where m is an integer appear
in my previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled "Energy/Matter
Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on
Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser.
No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on
Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of
Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496
filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is
a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed
Apr. 21, 1989, which are incorporated herein by reference.

**Multiple Electron Transfer**

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple
electrons between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the
ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron
donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or
electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals
approximately mX27.21 eV where m and t are integers.

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple
electrons between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
species to another whereby the t consecutive electron affinities
and/or ionization energies of the electron donating species
minus the t consecutive ionization energies and/or electron
affinities of the electron acceptor equals approximately mX27.21
eV where m and t are integers.

In a preferred embodiment the electron acceptor species is an
oxide such as MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x. A preferred
molecular electron acceptor is oxygen, O.sub.2.

**Two Electron Transfer (One Species)**

In an embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy
hole hinges on the ionization of two electrons from an atom,
ion, or molecule to a vacuum energy level such that the sum of
two ionization energies is approximately 27.21 eV. Zinc is one
of the catalysts (electrocatalytic atom) that can cause resonant
shrinkage because the sum of the first and second ionization
energies is 27.358 eV, m=1 in Eq. (3). Thus, the shrinkage
cascade for the p th cycle is represented by ##EQU64## And, the
overall reaction is ##EQU65## Two Electron Transfer (Two
Species)

In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an
energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an
atom, ion, or molecule to another atom or molecule such that the
sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two electron
affinities of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is
approximately 27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the
transfer of two electrons from an atom to a molecule involves
palladium and oxygen. For example, the first and second
ionization energies of palladium are 8.34 eV and 19.43 eV,
respectively. And, the first and second electron affinities of
the oxygen molecule are 0.45 eV and 0.11 eV, respectively. The
energy hole resulting from a two electron transfer is
appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination of Pd to
Pd.sup.2+ and O.sub.2 to O.sub.2.sup.2-, then, has a net energy
change of 27.21 eV. ##EQU66## And, the overall reaction is
##EQU67## Additional atoms, molecules, or compounds which could
be substituted for O.sub.2 are those with first and second
electron affinities of approximately 0.45 eV and 0.11 eV,
respectively, such as a mixed oxide (MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x,
SiO.sub.x) containing O to form O.sup.2- or O.sub.2 to form
O.sub.2.sup.2-.

**Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)**

In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an
energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an
atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such
that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of one
ionization energy and one electron affinity of the participating
atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately 27.21 eV. A
catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of two electrons
from an atom to an ion involves xenon and lithium. For example,
the first and second ionization energies of xenon are 12.13 eV
and 21.21 eV, respectively. And, the first ionization energy and
the first electron affinity of lithium are 5.39 eV and 0.62 eV,
respectively. The energy hole resulting from a two electron
transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination
of Xe to Xe.sup.2+ and Li.sup.+ to Li.sup.-, then, has a net
energy change of 27.33 eV. ##EQU68## And, the overall reaction
is ##EQU69## Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)

In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an
energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an
atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such
that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two
ionization energies of the participating atoms and/or molecules
is approximately 27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the
transfer of two electrons from a first ion to a second ion
involves silver(Ag.sup.+) and silver (Ag.sup.2+). For example,
the second and third ionization energies of silver are 21.49 eV
and 34.83 eV, respectively. And, the second and first ionization
energies of silver are 21.49 eV and 7.58 eV, respectively. The
energy hole resulting from a two electron transfer is
appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination of Ag.sup.+
to Ag.sup.3+ and Ag.sup.2+ to Ag, then, has a net energy change
of 27.25 eV. ##EQU70## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU71##
Three Electron Transfer (Two Species)

In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an
energy hole hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an
ion to another ion such that the sum of the electron affinity
and two ionization energies of the first ion minus the sum of
three ionization energies of the second ion is approximately
27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the transfer of
three electrons from an ion to a second ion involves Li.sup.-
and Cr.sup.3+. For example, the electron affinity, first
ionization energy, and second ionization energy of lithium are
0.62 eV, 5.392 eV, and 75.638 eV, respectively. And, the third,
second, and first ionization energies of Cr.sup.3+ are 30.96 eV,
16.50 eV, and 6.766 eV, respectively. The energy hole resulting
from a three electron transfer is appropriate for resonant
absorption. The combination of Li.sup.- to Li.sup.2+ and
Cr.sup.3+ to Cr, then, has a net energy change of 27.42 eV.
##EQU72## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU73## Three Electron
Transfer (Two Species)

In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an
energy hole hinges on the transfer of three electrons from an
atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such
that the sum of three consecutive ionization energies of the
electron donating species minus the sum of three consecutive
ionization energies of the electron accepting species is
approximately 27.21 eV. A catalytic system that hinges on the
transfer of three electrons from an atom to an ion involves Ag
and Ce.sup.3+. For example, the first, second, and third
ionization energies of silver are 7.58 eV, 21.49 eV, and 34.83
eV, respectively. And, the third, second, and first ionization
energies of Ce.sup.3+ are 20.20 eV, 10.85 eV, and 5.47 eV,
respectively. The energy hole resulting from a three electron
transfer is appropriate for resonant absorption. The combination
of Ag to Ag.sup.3+ and Ce.sup.3+ to Ce, then, has a net energy
change of 27.38 eV. ##EQU74## And, the overall reaction is
##EQU75##

**ADDITIONAL CATALYTIC ENERGY HOLE STRUCTURES**

**Single Electron Transfer**

In a further embodiment, an energy hole of energy equal to the
total energy released for a below "ground state" electronic
transition of the hydrogen atom is provided by the transfer of
an electron between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one
species to another species whereby the sum of the ionization
energy of the electron donating species minus the ionization
energy or electron affinity of the electron accepting species
equals approximately ##EQU76## where m is an integer.

For m=3 corresponding to the n=1 to n=1/2 transition, an
efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of three
resonator cavities involves arsenic and calcium. For example,
the third ionization energy of calcium is 50.908 eV. This energy
hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However,
As.sup.+ releases 9.81 eV when it is reduced to As. The
combination of Ca.sup.2+ to Ca.sup.3+ and As.sup.+ to As, then,
has a net energy change of 41.1 eV. ##EQU77## And, the overall
reaction is ##EQU78## Multiple Electron Transfer

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple
electrons between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the
ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron
donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or
electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals
approximately ##EQU79## where m and t are integers.

**CATALYTIC ENERGY HOLE STRUCTURES FOR MOLECULES**

**Single Electron Excited State**

An energy hole is provided by the transition of an electron of
a species to an excited state species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the excited state transition of an
electron of one species whereby the transition energy of the
accepting species is mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are
integers.

**Single Electron Transfer**

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of an electron
between participating species including atoms, ions, molecules,
and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment, the energy
hole comprises the transfer of an electron from one species to
another species whereby the sum of the ionization energy of the
electron donating species minus the ionization energy or
electron affinity of the electron accepting species equals
approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are integers.

**Single Electron Transfer (Two Species)**

An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of
three resonator cavities involves iron and lithium. For example,
the fourth ionization energy of iron is 54.8 eV. This energy
hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However,
Li.sup.+ releases 5.392 eV when it is reduced to Li. The
combination of Fe.sup.3+ to Fe.sup.4+ and Li.sup.+ to Li, then,
has a net energy change of 49.4 eV. ##EQU80## And, the overall
reaction is ##EQU81## Note that the energy given off as the
molecule shrinks is much greater than the energy lost to the
energy hole. And, the energy released is large compared to
conventional chemical reactions.

An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of
three resonator cavities involves scandium. For example, the
fourth ionization energy of scandium is 73.47 eV. This energy
hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However,
Sc.sup.3+ releases 24.76 eV when it is reduced to Sc.sup.2+. The
combination of Sc.sup.3+ to Sc.sup.4+ and Sc.sup.3+ to
Sc.sup.2+, then, has a net energy change of 48.7 eV. ##EQU82##
And, the overall reaction is ##EQU83##

An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of
three resonator cavities involves yttrium. For example, the
fourth ionization energy of gallium is 64.00 eV. This energy
hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption. However,
Pb.sup.2+ releases 15.03 eV when it is reduced to Pb.sup.+. The
combination of Ga.sup.3+ to Ga.sup.4+ and Pb.sup.2+ to Pb.sup.+,
then, has a net energy change of 48.97 eV. ##EQU84## And, the
overall reaction is ##EQU85## Single Electron Transfer (One
Species)

An energy hole is provided by the ionization of an electron
from a participating species including an atom, an ion, a
molecule, and an ionic or molecular compound to a vacuum energy
level. In one embodiment, the energy hole comprises the
ionization of an electron from one species to a vacuum energy
level whereby the ionization energy of the electron donating
species equals approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are
integers.

**Multiple Electron Transfer**

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple
electrons between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the
ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron
donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or
electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals
approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m, p, and t are integers.

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of multiple
electrons between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
species to another whereby the t consecutive electron affinities
and/or ionization energies of the electron donating species
minus the t consecutive ionization energies and/or electron
affinities of the electron acceptor equals approximately
mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m, p, and t are integers.

In a preferred embodiment the electron acceptor species is an
oxide such as MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x. A preferred
molecular electron acceptor is oxygen, O.sub.2.

**Two Electron Transfer (One Species)**

In an embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an energy
hole hinges on the ionization of two electrons from an atom,
ion, or molecule to a vacuum energy level such that the sum of
two ionization energies is approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where
m, and p are integers.

**Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)**

In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an
energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an
atom, ion, or molecule to another atom or molecule such that the
sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of two electron
affinities of the participating atoms, ions, and/or molecules is
approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV where m and p are integers.

**Two Electron Transfer (Two Species)**

In another embodiment, a catalytic system that provides an
energy hole hinges on the transfer of two electrons from an
atom, ion, or molecule to another atom, ion, or molecule such
that the sum of two ionization energies minus the sum of one
ionization energy and one electron affinity of the participating
atoms, ions, and/or molecules is approximately mp.sup.2 X48.6 eV
where m and p are integers.

**Other Energy Holes**

In another embodiment, energy holes, each of approximately
mX67.8 eV given by Eq. (30) ##EQU86## are provided by electron
transfer reactions of reactants including electrochemical
reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or couple(s)) which cause
heat to be released from hydrogen molecules as their electrons
are stimulated to relax to quantized potential energy levels
below that of the "ground state". The energy removed by an
electron transfer reaction, energy hole, is resonant with the
hydrogen energy released to stimulate this transition. The
source of hydrogen molecules is the production on the surface of
a cathode during electrolysis of water in the case of an
electrolytic energy reactor and hydrogen gas or a hydride in the
case of a pressurized gas energy reactor or gas discharge energy
reactor.

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more
electrons between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the
ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron
donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or
electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals
approximately mX67.8 eV where m and t are integers.

An efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling of
three resonator cavities involves magnesium and strontium. For
example, the third ionization energy of magnesium is 80.143 eV.
This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant absorption.
However, Sr.sup.2+ releases 11.03 eV when it is reduced to
Sr.sup.+. The combination of Mg.sup.2+ to Mg.sup.3+ and
Sr.sup.2+ to Sr.sup.+, then, has a net energy change of 69.1 eV.
##EQU87## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU88##

Another efficient catalytic system that hinges on the coupling
of three resonator cavities involves magnesium and calcium. In
this case, Ca.sup.2+ releases 11.871 eV when it is reduced to
Ca.sup.+. The combination of Mg.sup.2+ to Mg.sup.3+ and
Ca.sup.2+ to Ca.sup.+, then, has a net energy change of 68.2 eV.
##EQU89## And, the overall reaction is ##EQU90##

In four other embodiments wherein the theory is given in my
previous U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on
Aug. 16, 1993 which is incorporated herein by this reference,
energy holes, each of approximately:

nXE.sub.T eV with zero order vibration where E.sub.T is given
by Eq. (38);

mX31.94 eV where 31.94 eV is given by Eq. (222) of the U.S.
patent application Ser. No. 08/107,357 where n and m are
integers, ##EQU91## and 95.7 eV (corresponding to m=1 in Eq.
(43) with zero order vibration which is given by the difference
in ##EQU92## of Eqs. (254) and (222) of the U.S. patent
application Ser. No. 08/107,357)) ##EQU93## are provided by
electron transfer reactions of reactants including
electrochemical reactant(s) (electrocatalytic ion(s) or
couple(s)) which cause heat to be released from hydrogen
molecules as their electrons are stimulated to relax to
quantized potential energy levels below that of the "ground
state". The energy removed by an electron transfer reaction,
energy hole, is resonant with the hydrogen energy released to
stimulate this transition. The source of hydrogen molecules is
the production on the surface of a cathode during electrolysis
of water in the case of an electrolytic energy reactor and
hydrogen gas or a hydride in the case of a pressurized gas
energy reactor or gas discharge energy reactor.

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more
electrons between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the
ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron
donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or
electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals
approximately mX31.94 eV (Eq. (222)) where m and t are integers.

An energy hole is provided by the transfer of one or more
electrons between participating species including atoms, ions,
molecules, and ionic and molecular compounds. In one embodiment,
the energy hole comprises the transfer of t electrons from one
or more species to one or more species whereby the sum of the
ionization energies and/or electron affinities of the electron
donating species minus the sum of the ionization energies and/or
electron affinities of the electron acceptor species equals
approximately mX95.7 eV where m and t are integers.

**ENERGY REACTOR**

An energy reactor 50, in accordance with the invention, is
shown in FIG. 5 and comprises a vessel 52 which contains an
energy reaction mixture 54, a heat exchanger 60, and a steam
generator 62. The heat exchanger 60 absorbs heat released by the
shrinkage reaction, when the reaction mixture, comprised of
shrinkable material, shrinks. The heat exchanger exchanges heat
with the steam generator 62 which absorbs heat from the
exchanger 60 and produces steam. The energy reactor 50 further
comprises a turbine 70 which receives steam from the steam
generator 62 and supplies mechanical power to a power generator
80 which converts the steam energy into electrical energy, which
can be received by a load 90 to produce work or for dissipation.

The energy reaction mixture 54 comprises an energy releasing
material 56 including a source of hydrogen isotope atoms or a
source of molecular hydrogen isotope, and a source of energy
holes 58 which resonantly remove approximately mX27.21 eV to
cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage" and approximately mX48.6 eV to
cause molecular hydrogen "shrinkage" where m is an integer
wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen
with the source of energy holes. The shrinkage reaction releases
heat and shrunken atoms and/or molecules.

The source of hydrogen can be hydrogen gas, dissociation of
water including thermal dissociation, electrolysis of water,
hydrogen from hydrides, or hydrogen from metal-hydrogen
solutions. In all embodiments, the source of energy holes can be
one or more of an electrochemical, chemical, photochemical,
thermal, free radical, sonic, or nuclear reaction(s) or
inelastic photon or particle scattering reaction(s). In the
latter two cases, the present invention of an energy reactor
comprises a particle source 75b and/or photon source 75a to
supply the said energy holes. In these cases, the energy hole
corresponds to stimulated emission by the photon or particle. In
preferred embodiments of the pressurized gas energy and gas
discharge reactors shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, respectively, a
photon source 75a dissociates hydrogen molecules to hydrogen
atoms. The photon source producing photons of at least one
energy of approximately mX27.21 eV, ##EQU94## or 40.8 eV causes
stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen atoms undergo the
shrinkage reaction. In another preferred embodiment, a photon
source 75a producing photons of at least one energy of
approximately mX48.6 eV, 95.7 eV, or mX31.94 eV causes
stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen molecules undergo
the shrinkage reaction. In all reaction mixtures, a selected
external energy device 75, such as an electrode may be used to
supply an electrostatic potential or a current (magnetic field)
to decrease the activation energy of the resonant absorption of
an energy hole. In another embodiment, the mixture 54, further
comprises a surface or material to dissociate and/or absorb
atoms and/or molecules of the energy releasing material 56. Such
surfaces or materials to dissociate and/or absorb hydrogen,
deuterium, or tritium comprise an element, compound, alloy, or
mixture of transition elements and inner transition elements,
iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel,
titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd,
La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd,
Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal
(carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite). In a preferred
embodiment, a source of energy holes to shrink hydrogen atoms
comprises a catalytic energy hole material 58, typically
comprising electrocatalytic ions and couples that provide an
energy hole of approximately mX27.21 eV plus or minus 1 eV. In a
preferred embodiment, a source of energy holes to shrink
hydrogen molecules comprises a catalytic energy hole material
58, typically comprising electrocatalytic ions and couple(s)
including those that provide an energy hole of approximately
nX48.6 eV plus or minus 5 eV. The electrocatalytic ions and
couple(s) include the electrocatalytic ions and couples
described in my previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled
"Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No.
08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357
filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun.
11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser.
No. 07/1626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed
Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application of
Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989, which are incorporated
herein by reference.

A further embodiment is the vessel 52 containing a source of
energy holes including an electrocatalytic ion or couple(s)
(source of energy holes) in the molten, liquid, gaseous, or
solid state and a source of hydrogen including hydrides and
gaseous hydrogen. In the case of a reactor which shrinks
hydrogen atoms, the embodiment further comprises a means to
dissociate the molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen including
an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements,
inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium,
vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo,
Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr,
Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U,
activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon
(graphite) or electromagnetic radiation including UV light
provided by photon source 75.

The present invention of an electrolytic cell energy reactor,
pressurized gas energy reactor, and a gas discharge energy
reactor, comprises: a source of hydrogen; one of a solid,
molten, liquid, and gaseous source of energy holes; a vessel
containing hydrogen and the source of energy holes wherein the
shrinkage reaction occurs by contact of the hydrogen with the
source of energy holes; and a means for removing the (molecular)
lower-energy hydrogen so as to prevent an exothermic shrinkage
reaction from coming to equilibrium. The present energy
invention is further described in my previous U.S. Patent
Applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and
Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is
a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed
on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of
Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt.
99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628
filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application
of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989, and my publications,
Mills, R., Kneizys, S., Fusion Technology, 210, (1991), pp.
65-81; Mills, R., Good, W., Shaubach, R., "Dihydrino Molecule
Identification", Fusion Technology, 25, 103 (1994); Mills, R.,
Good, W., "Fractional Quantum Energy Levels of Hydrogen", Fusion
Technology, Vol. 28, No. 4, November, (1995), pp. 1697-1719
which are incorporated herein by reference.

**Electrolytic Energy Reactor**

An electrolytic energy reactor is described in my previous U.S.
patent applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods
and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040
filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102
(Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on
Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part application of
Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed
Apr. 21, 1989 which are incorporated herein by reference. A
preferred embodiment of the energy reactor of the present
invention comprises an electrolytic cell forming the reaction
vessel 52 of FIG. 5 including a molten electrolytic cell. The
electrolytic cell 100 is shown generally in FIG. 6. An electric
current is passed through the electrolytic solution 102 having a
electrocatalytic ions or couples providing energy holes equal to
the resonance shrinkage energy (including the electrocatalytic
ions and couples described in my previous U.S. Patent
Applications incorporated herein by reference) by the
application of a voltage to an anode 104 and cathode 106 by the
power controller 108 powered by the power supply 110. Ultrasonic
or mechanical energy may also be imparted to the cathode 106 and
electrolytic solution 102 by vibrating means 112. Heat can be
supplied to the electrolytic solution 102 by heater 114. The
pressure of the electrolytic cell 100 can be controlled by
pressure regulator means 116 where the cell can be closed. The
reactor further comprises a means 101 that removes the
(molecular) lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective venting
valve to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming
to equilibrium.

In a preferred embodiment, the electrolytic cell is operated at
zero voltage gap by applying an overpressure of hydrogen with
hydrogen source 121 where the overpressure can be controlled by
pressure control means 122 and 116. Water can be reduced to
hydrogen and hydroxide at the cathode 106, and the hydrogen can
be oxidized to protons at the anode 104. An embodiment of the
electrolytic cell energy reactor, comprises a reverse fuel cell
geometry which removes the lower-energy hydrogen under vacuum. A
preferred cathode 106 of this embodiment has a modified gas
diffusion layer and comprises a gas route means including a
first Teflon membrane filter and a second carbon paper/Teflon
membrane filter composite layer. A further embodiment comprises
a reaction vessel that can be closed except for a connection to
a condensor 140 on the top of the vessel 100. The cell can be
operated at a boil such that the steam evolving from the boiling
electrolyte 102 can be condensed in the condenser 140, and the
condensed water can be returned to the vessel 100. The
lower-energy state hydrogen can be vented through the top of the
condenser 140. In one embodiment, the condensor contains a
hydrogen/oxygen recombiner 145 that contacts the evolving
electrolytic gases. The hydrogen and oxygen are recombined, and
the resulting water can be returned to the vessel 100. The heat
released from the exothermic reaction whereby the electrons of
the electrolytically produced hydrogen atoms (molecules) are
induced to undergo transitions to energy levels below the
"ground state" and the heat released due to the recombination of
the electrolytically generated normal hydrogen and oxygen can be
removed by a heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5 which can be connected
to the condensor 140.

In vacuum, in the absence of external fields, the energy hole
to stimulate a hydrogen atom (molecule) to undergo a shrinkage
transition is mX27.21 eV (mX48.6 eV) where m is an integer. This
resonance shrinkage energy can be altered when the atom
(molecule) is in a media different from vacuum. An example is a
hydrogen atom (molecule) absorbed to the cathode 106 present in
the aqueous electrolytic solution 102 having an applied electric
field and an intrinsic or applied magnetic field provided by
external magnetic field generator 75. Under these conditions the
energy hole required can be slightly different from mX27.21 eV
(mX48.6 eV). Thus, a source of energy holes including
electrocatalytic ion and couple reactants can be selected which
has a redox (electron transfer) energy resonant with the
resonance shrinkage energy when operating under these
conditions. In the case where a nickel cathode 106 is used to
electrolyze an aqueous solution 102 where the cell is operating
within a voltage range of 1.4 to 5 volts, the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+
and Rb.sup.+ (Fe.sup.3+ /Li.sup.+ and Sc.sup.3+ /Sc.sup.3+)
electrocatalytic ions and couples are preferred embodiments to
shrink hydrogen atoms (molecules).

The cathode provides hydrogen atoms (molecules), and the
shrinkage reaction occurs at the surface of the cathode where
hydrogen atoms (molecules) and the source of energy holes
(electrocatalytic ion or couple) are in contact. Thus, the
shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the surface area of the
cathode. For a constant current density, giving a constant
concentration of hydrogen atoms (molecules) per unit area, an
increase in surface area increases the reactants available to
undergo the shrinkage reaction. Also. an increase in cathode
surface area decreases the resistance of the electrolytic cell
which improves the electrolysis efficiency. A preferred cathode
of the electrolytic cell including a nickel cathode has the
properties of a high surface area, a highly stressed and
hardened surface such as a cold drawn or cold worked surface,
and a large number of grain boundaries.

In a preferred embodiment of the electrolytic cell energy
reactor, the source of energy holes can be incorporated into the
cathode, mechanically by methods including cold working the
source of energy holes into the surface of the cathode;
thermally by methods including melting the source of energy
holes into the surface of the cathode and evaporation of a
solvent of a solution of the source of energy holes in contact
with the surface of the cathode, and electrostatically by
methods including electrolytic deposition, ion bombardment, and
vacuum deposition.

The shrinkage reaction rate can be dependent upon the
composition of the cathode 106. Hydrogen atoms (molecules) are
reactants to produce energy via the shrinkage reaction. Thus,
the cathode must efficiently provide a high concentration of
hydrogen atoms (molecules). The cathode 106 can be comprised of
any element. compound, alloy, or mixture of a conductor or
semiconductor including transition elements and compounds,
actinide and lanthanide elements and compounds, and group IIIB
and IVB elements and compounds. Transition metals dissociate
hydrogen gas into atoms to a more or lesser extent depending on
the metal. Nickel and titanium readily dissociate hydrogen
molecules and are preferred embodiments for shrinking hydrogen
atoms. The cathode can alter the energy of the absorbed hydrogen
atoms (molecules) and affect the energy of the shrinkage
reaction. A cathode material can be selected which provides
resonance between the energy hole and the resonance shrinkage
energy. In the case of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic
couple with carbonate as the counterion for catalyzing the
shrinkage of hydrogen atoms, the relationship of the cathode
material to the reaction rate can be:

Pt<Pd<<Ti,Fe<Ni

This can be the opposite order of the energy released when
these materials absorb hydrogen atoms. Thus, for this
electrocatalytic couple, the reaction rate can be increased by
using a cathode which weakly absorbs the hydrogen atoms with
little perturbation of their electronic energies.

Also, coupling of resonator cavities and enhancement of the
transfer of energy between them can be increased when the media
is a nonlinear media such as a magnetized ferromagnetic media.
Thus, a paramagnetic or ferromagnetic cathode, a nonlinear
magnetized media, increases the reaction rate by increasing the
coupling of the resonance shrinkage energy of the hydrogen atom
and energy hole comprising an electrocatalytic ion or couple.
Alternatively, a magnetic field can be applied with the magnetic
field generator 75. Magnetic fields at the cathode alter the
energy of absorbed hydrogen and concomitantly alter the
resonance shrinkage energy. Magnetic fields also perturb the
energy of the electrocatalytic reactions (energy hole) by
altering the energy levels of the electrons involved in the
reactions. The magnetic properties of the cathode are selected
as well as the strength of the magnetic field which is applied
by magnetic field generator 75 to optimize shrinkage reaction
rate-the power output. A preferred ferromagnetic cathode is
nickel.

A preferred method to clean the cathode of the electrolytic
cell including a nickel cathode is to anodize the cathode in a
basic electrolytic solution including approximately 0.57 M
X.sub.2 CO.sub.3 (X is the alkali cation of the electrolyte
including K.sup.+) and to immerse the cathode in a dilute
solution of H.sub.2 O.sub.2 such as approximately 3% H.sub.2
O.sub.2. In a further embodiment of the cleaning method, cyclic
voltametry with a second electrode of the same material as the
first cathode is performed. The cathode can be then thoroughly
rinsed with distilled water. Organic material on the surface of
the cathode inhibits the catalytic reaction whereby the
electrons of the electrolytically produced hydrogen atoms
(molecules) are induced to undergo transitions to energy levels
below the "ground state". Cleaning by this method removes the
organic material from the cathode surface and adds oxygen atoms
onto the cathode surface. Doping the metal surface, including a
nickel surface, with oxygen atoms by anodizing the cathode and
cleaning the cathode in H.sub.2 O.sub.2 increases the power
output by decreasing hydrogen recombination to molecular
hydrogen and by decreasing the bond energy between the metal and
the hydrogen atoms (molecules) which conforms the resonance
shrinkage energy of the absorbed hydrogen to the energy hole
provided by the source of energy holes including the K.sup.+
/K.sup.+ (Sc.sup.3+ /Sc.sup.3+) electrocatalytic couples.

Different anode materials have different overpotentials for the
oxidation of water, which can affect ohmic losses. An anode of
low overpotential will increase the efficiency. Nickel,
platinum, and dimensionally stable anodes including platinized
titanium are preferred anodes. In the case of the K.sup.+
/K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple where carbonate is used as the
counterion, nickel is a preferred anode. Nickel is also a
preferred anode for use in basic solutions with a nickel
cathode. Nickel is inexpensive relative to platinum, and fresh
nickel can be electroplated onto the cathode during
electrolysis.

A preferred method to clean a dimensionally stable anode
including a platinized titanium anode is to place the anode in
approximately 3 M HCl for approximately 5 minutes and then to
rinse it with distilled water.

In the case of hydrogen atom shrinkage, hydrogen atoms at the
surface of the cathode 106 form hydrogen gas which can form
bubbles on the surface of the cathode. These bubbles act as an
boundary layer between the hydrogen atoms and the
electrocatalytic ion or couple. The boundary can be ameliorated
by vibrating the cathode and/or the electrolytic solution 102 or
by applying ultrasound with vibrating means 112; and by adding
wetting agents to the electrolytic solution 102 to reduce the
surface tension of the water and prevent bubble formation. The
use of a cathode having a smooth surface or a wire cathode
prevents gas adherence. And an intermittent current, provided by
an on-off circuit of power controller 108 provides periodic
replenishing of hydrogen atoms which are dissipated by hydrogen
gas formation followed by diffusion into the solution while
preventing excessive hydrogen gas formation which could form a
boundary layer.

The shrinkage reaction can be temperature dependent. Most
chemical reactions double their rates for each 10.degree. C.
rise in temperature. Increasing the temperature increases the
collision rate between the hydrogen atoms (molecules) and the
electrocatalytic ion or couple which will increase the shrinkage
reaction rate. With large temperature excursions from room
temperature, the kinetic energy distribution of the reactants
can be sufficiently altered to cause the energy hole and the
resonance shrinkage energy to conform to a more or lesser
extent. The rate can be proportional to the extent of the
conformation or resonance of these energies. The temperature can
be adjusted to optimize the shrinkage reaction rate-energy
production rate. In the case of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+
electrocatalytic couple, a preferred embodiment can be to run
the reaction at a temperature above room temperature by applying
heat with heater 114.

The shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the current density.
An increase in current density can be equivalent, in some
aspects, to an increase in temperature. The collision rate
increases, and the energy of the reactants increases with
current density. Thus, the rate can be increased by increasing
the collision rate of the reactants; however, the rate may be
increased or decreased depending on the effect of the increased
reactant energies on the conformation of the energy hole and the
resonance shrinkage energy. Also, increased current dissipates
more energy by ohmic heating and may cause hydrogen bubble
formation, in the case of the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms. But,
a high flow of gas may dislodge bubbles which diminishes any
hydrogen gas boundary layer. The current density can be adjusted
with power controller 108 to optimize the excess energy
production. In a preferred embodiment, the current density can
be in the range 1 to 1000 milliamps per square centimeter.

The pH of the aqueous electrolytic solution 102 can affect the
shrinkage reaction rate. In the case that the electrocatalytic
ion or couple is positively charged, an increase in the pH will
reduce the concentration of hydronium at the negative cathode;
thus, the concentration of the electrocatalytic ion or couple
cations will increase. An increase in reactant concentration
increases the reaction rate. In the case of the Rb.sup.+ or
K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ (Sc.sup.3+ /Sc.sup.3+) ion or couple, a
preferred pH can be basic (7.1-14).

The counterion of the electrocatalytic ion or couple of the
electrolytic solution 102 can affect the shrinkage reaction rate
by altering the energy of the transition state. For example, the
transition state complex of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+
electrocatalytic couple with the hydrogen atom has a plus two
charge and involves a three body collision which can be
unfavorable. A negative two charged oxyanion can bind the two
potassium ions; thus, it provides a neutral transition state
complex of lower energy whose formation depends on a binary
collision which can be greatly favored. The rate can be
dependent on the separation distance of the potassium ions as
part of the complex with the oxyanion. The greater the
separation distance, the less favorable can be the transfer of
an electron between them. A close juxtaposition of the potassium
ions will increase the rate. The relationship of the reaction
rate to the counterion in the case where the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+
couple is used can be:

OH.sup.-<PO.sub.4.sup.3-, HPO.sub.3.sup.2-
<SO.sub.4.sup.2- <<CO.sub.3.sup.2-

Thus, a planar negative two charge oxyanion including carbonate
with at least two binding sites for K.sup.+ which provides close
juxtaposition of the K.sup.+ ions can be preferred as the
counterion of the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple. The
carbonate counterion can be also a preferred counterion for the
Rb.sup.+ electrocatalytic ion.

A power controller 108 comprising an intermittent current,
on-off, electrolysis circuit will increase the excess heat by
providing optimization of the electric field as a function of
time which provides maximum conformation of reactant energies,
provides an optimal concentration of hydrogen atoms (molecules)
while minimizing ohmic and electrolysis power losses and, in the
case of the shrinkage of hydrogen atoms, minimizes the formation
of a hydrogen gas boundary layer. The frequency, duty cycle,
peak voltage, step waveform, peak current, and offset voltage
are adjusted to achieve the optimal shrinkage reaction rate and
shrinkage reaction power while minimizing ohmic and electrolysis
power losses. In the case where the K.sup.+ /K.sup.+
electrocatalytic couple can be used with carbonate as the
counterion; nickel as the cathode: and platinum as the anode, a
preferred embodiment can be to use an intermittent square-wave
having an offset voltage of approximately 1.4 volts to 2.2
volts; a peak voltage of approximately 1.5 volts to 3.75 volts;
a peak current of approximately 1 mA to 100 mA per square
centimeter of cathode surface area; approximately a 5%-90% duty
cycle; and a frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 1500 Hz.

Further energy can be released by repeating the shrinkage
reaction. The atoms (molecules) which have undergone shrinkage
diffuse into the cathode lattice. A cathode 106 can be used
which will facilitates multiple shrinkage reactions of hydrogen
atoms (molecules). One embodiment is to use a cathode which can
be fissured and porous to the electrocatalytic ion or couple
such that it can contact shrunken atoms (molecules) which have
diffused into a lattice, including a metal lattice. A further
embodiment is to use a cathode of alternating layers of a
material which provides hydrogen atoms (molecules) during
electrolysis including a transition metal and an
electrocatalytic ion or couple such that shrunken hydrogen atoms
(molecules) periodically or repetitively diffuse into contact
with the electrocatalytic ion or couple.

The shrinkage reaction can be dependent on the dielectric
constant of the media. The dielectric constant of the media
alters the electric field at the cathode and concomitantly
alters the energy of the reactants. Solvents of different
dielectric constants have different solvation energies, and the
dielectric constant of the solvent can also lower the
overpotential for electrolysis and improve electrolysis
efficiency. A solvent, including water, can be selected for the
electrolytic solution 102 which optimizes the conformation of
the energy hole and resonance shrinkage energy and maximizes the
efficiency of electrolysis.

The solubility of hydrogen in the reaction solution can be
directly proportional to the pressure of hydrogen above the
solution. Increasing the pressure increases the concentration of
reactant hydrogen atoms (molecules) at the cathode 106 and
thereby increases the rate. But, in the case of the shrinkage of
hydrogen atoms this also favors the development of a hydrogen
gas boundary layer. The hydrogen pressure can be controlled by
pressure regulator means 116 to optimize the shrinkage reaction
rate.

In a preferred embodiment, the cathode 106 of the electrolytic
cell comprises the catalytic material including a hydrogen
spillover catalyst described in the Pressurized Gas Energy
Reactor Section below. In another embodiment, the cathode
comprises multiple hollow vessels comprising a thin film
conductive shell whereby lower-energy hydrogen diffuses through
the thin film and collects inside each vessel and undergoes
disproportionation reactions therein.

The heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present in
at least the vessel 100 and the condensor 140 of FIG. 6 and the
heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5. The output power can be controlled
by a computerized monitoring and control system which monitors
the thermistors and controls the means to alter the power
output.

**Pressurized Gas Energy Reactor**

A pressurized gas energy reactor comprises the first vessel 200
of FIG. 7 containing a source of hydrogen including hydrogen
from metal-hydrogen solutions, hydrogen from hydrides, hydrogen
from the dissociation of water including thermal dissociation,
hydrogen from the electrolysis of water, or hydrogen gas. In the
case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms, the reactor
further comprises a means to dissociate the molecular hydrogen
into atomic hydrogen such as a dissociating material including
an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements
and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium,
zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn,
Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au,
Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th,
Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon
(graphite) or electromagnetic radiation including UV light
provided by photon source 205 such that the dissociated hydrogen
atoms (molecules) contact a source of energy holes including a
molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes
including the electrocatalytic ions and couples described in my
previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled "Energy/Matter
Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on
Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser.
No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on
Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of
Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496
filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is
a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed
Apr. 21, 1989, which are incorporated herein by reference. The
pressurized gas energy reactor further comprises a means 201 to
remove the (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective
venting valve to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from
coming to equilibrium. One embodiment comprises heat pipes as
heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5 which have a lower-energy hydrogen
venting valve at a cold spot.

A preferred embodiment of the pressurized gas energy reactor of
the present invention comprises a first reaction vessel 200 with
inner surface 240 comprised of a material to dissociate the
molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen including an element,
compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner
transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium,
vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo,
Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr,
Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Th, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U,
activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon
(graphite). In a further embodiment, the inner surface 240 can
be comprised of a proton conductor. The first reaction vessel
200 can be sealed in a second reaction vessel 220 and receives
hydrogen from source 221 under pressure which can be controlled
by pressure measurement and control means 222 and 223. In a
preferred embodiment the hydrogen pressure can be in the range
of 10.sup.-3 atmospheres to 100 atmospheres. The wall 250 of the
first vessel 200 can be permeable to hydrogen. The outer surface
245 and/or outer vessel 220 has a source of energy holes equal
to the resonance shrinkage energy. In one embodiment the source
of energy holes can be a mixture or solution containing energy
holes in the molten, liquid, or solid state. In another
embodiment an electric current can be passed through the
material having a source of energy holes. The reactor further
comprises a means to control the reaction rate such as current
source 225 and heating means 230 which heat the first reaction
vessel 200 and the second reaction vessel 220. In a preferred
embodiment the outer reaction vessel 220 contains oxygen, the
inner surface 240 comprises one or more of a coat of nickel,
platinum, or palladium. The outer surface 245 can be coated with
one or more of copper, tellurium, arsenic, cesium, platinum, or
palladium and an oxide such as CuO.sub.x, PtO.sub.x, PdO.sub.x,
MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x. The electrocatalytic ion or
couple can be regenerated spontaneously or via a regeneration
means including heating means 230 and current source 225.

In another embodiment, the pressurized gas energy reactor
comprises only a single reaction vessel 200 with a hydrogen
impermeable wall 250. In the case of a reactor which shrinks
hydrogen atoms, one or more of a hydrogen dissociating materials
including transition elements and inner transition elements,
iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel,
titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd,
La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd,
Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal
(carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite) are coated on
the inner surface 240 with a source of energy holes including
one or more of copper, tellurium, arsenic, cesium, platinum, or
palladium and an oxide such as CuO.sub.x, PtO.sub.x, PdO.sub.x,
MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x. In another embodiment, the
source of energy hole can be one of a inelastic photon or
particle scattering reaction(s). In a preferred embodiment the
photon source 205 supplies the energy holes where the energy
hole corresponds to stimulated emission by the photon. In the
case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms the photon source
205 dissociates hydrogen molecules into hydrogen atoms. The
photon source producing photons of at least one energy of
approximately mX27.21 eV, ##EQU95## or 40.8 eV causes stimulated
emission of energy as the hydrogen atoms undergo the shrinkage
reaction. In another preferred embodiment, a photon source 205
producing photons of at least one energy of approximately mX48.6
eV, 95.7 eV, or mX31.94 eV causes stimulated emission of energy
as the hydrogen molecules undergo the shrinkage reaction.

A preferred inner surface, 240, and outer surface, 245, of the
pressurized gas energy reactor including a nickel surface has
the properties of a high surface area, a highly stressed and
hardened surface such as a cold drawn or cold worked surface,
and a large number of grain boundaries.

In an embodiment of the pressurized gas energy reactor, the
source of energy holes can be incorporated into the inner
surface, 240, and outer surface, 245, mechanically by methods
including cold working the source of energy holes into the
surface material and thermally by methods including melting the
source of energy holes into the surface material (fusion).
Further methods of incorporation include dry impregnation,
evaporation of a solution of the source of energy holes in
contact with the surface material (precipitation), ion
bombardment, vacuum deposition, impregnation, leaching, and
electrostatic incorporation including electrolytic deposition
and electroplating. A preferred method to clean the inner
surface 240 and the outer surface 245 including a nickel surface
is to fill the inner vessel and the outer vessel with a basic
electrolytic solution including approximately 0.57 M X.sub.2
CO.sub.3 (X is the alkali cation of the electrolyte including
K.sup.+) and to fill the inner vessel and the outer vessel with
a dilute solution of H.sub.2 O.sub.2. Each of the inner vessel
and the outer vessel can be then thoroughly rinsed with
distilled water. In one embodiment, at least one of the vessel
200 or the vessel 220 can be then filled with a solution of the
energy hole including an approximately 0.57 M K.sub.2 CO.sub.3
solution.

In a further embodiment, textural and/or structural promoters
are incorporated with the source of energy holes to increase the
shrinkage reaction rate.

In one embodiment of the method of operation of the pressurized
gas energy reactor, hydrogen can be introduced inside of the
first vessel from source 221 under pressure which can be
controlled by pressure control means 222. In the case of a
reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms, the molecular hydrogen can
be dissociated into atomic hydrogen by a dissociating material
or electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided by
photon source 205 such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms
contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid,
gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes. The atomic
(molecular) hydrogen releases energy as its electrons are
stimulated to undergo transitions to lower energy levels by the
energy holes. Alternatively, the hydrogen dissociates on the
inner surface 240, diffuses though the wall 250 of the first
vessel 200 and contacts a source of energy holes on the outer
surface 245 or contact a source of energy holes including a
molten, liquid, gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes as
hydrogen atoms or recombined hydrogen molecules. The atomic
(molecular) hydrogen releases energy as its electrons are
stimulated to undergo transitions to lower energy levels by the
energy holes. The electrocatalytic ion or couple can be
regenerated spontaneously or via a regeneration means including
heating means 230 and current source 225. The (molecular)
lower-energy hydrogen can be removed from vessel 200 and/or
vessel 220 by a means to remove the (molecular) lower-energy
hydrogen such as a selective venting valve means 201 which
prevents the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to
equilibrium. To control the reaction rate (the power output), an
electric current can be passed through the material having a
source of energy holes equal to the resonance shrinkage energy
with current source 225, and/or the first reaction vessel 200
and the second reaction vessel 220 are heated by heating means
230. The heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present
in at least the first vessel 200, the second vessel 220, and the
heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5. The output power can be controlled
by a computerized monitoring and control system which monitors
the thermistors and controls the means to alter the power
output. The (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen can be removed by
a means 201 to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from
coming to equilibrium.

A method of preparation of the catalytic material of the
present invention of catalytic systems that hinge on the
transfer of an electron from a cation to another capable of
producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms includes the
steps of:

Mixing the oxides of the cations with the hydrogen dissociating
material.

Thoroughly mixing by repeatedly sintering and pulverizing.

Example of a Ceramic Catalytic Material: Strontium Niobium
Oxide (SrNb.sub.2 O.sub.6) on Ni Powder

To prepare the ceramic catalytic material: strontium niobium
oxide (SrNb.sub.2 O.sub.6) on Ni powder, 2.5 kg of SrNb.sub.2
O.sub.6 are added to 1.5 kg of -300 mesh Ni powder. The
materials are mixed to make a homogeneous mixture. The powder
can be sintered or calcinated in an oven at 1600.degree. C. in
atmospheric air for 24 hours. The material can be cooled and
ground to remove lumps. The material can be re-sintered at
1600.degree. C. in air for another 24 hours. The material can be
cooled to room temperature and powderized.

A method of preparation of the catalytic material of the
present invention of catalytic systems that hinge on the
transfer of an electron from a cation to another capable of
producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms includes the
steps of:

Dissolving ionic salts of the cations into a solvent. In a
preferred embodiment, the ionic salts are dissolved in deionized
demineralized water to concentration of 0.3 to 0.5 molar.

Uniformly wetting a dissociation material with the dissolved
salt solution.

Draining the excess solution.

Drying the wetted dissociation material in an oven preferably
at a temperature of 220.degree. C.

Pulverizing the dried catalytic material into a powder.

Example of a Ionic Catalytic Material: Potassium Carbonate
(K.sub.2 CO.sub.3) on Ni Powder

To prepare the ionic catalytic material: potassium carbonate
(K.sub.2 CO.sub.3) on Ni powder, a 1 liter solution of 0.5 M
K.sub.2 CO.sub.3 in water is poured over 500 grams of -300 mesh
Ni powder. The materials are stirred to remove air pockets
around the grains of Ni. The excess solution can be drained off.
The powder can be dried in an oven at 200.degree. C. If
necessary the material can be ground to remove lumps.

Hydrogen Spillover Catalysts

In a preferred embodiment, the source of hydrogen atoms for the
catalytic shrinkage reaction comprises a hydrogen spillover
catalyst.

A hydrogen spillover catalyst according to the present
invention comprises:

A hydrogen dissociation material or means which forms free
hydrogen atoms or protons;

A conduit material onto which free hydrogen atoms spill and
which supports free, mobile hydrogen atoms and provides a path
or conduit for the flow of hydrogen atoms or protons;

A source of energy holes which catalyze the shrinkage reaction,
and optionally

A support material into which the former materials are embedded
as a mixture, compound, or solution.

Such hydrogen dissociation materials include surfaces or
materials to dissociate hydrogen, deuterium, or tritium,
comprise an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition
elements and inner transition elements, iron, platinum,
palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn,
Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re,
Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm,
Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated
Cs carbon (graphite). Such conduit materials onto which free
hydrogen atoms spill and which supports free, mobile hydrogen
atoms and which provides a path or conduit for the flow of
hydrogen atoms include nickel, platinum, carbon, tin, iron,
aluminum, and copper and their compounds, mixtures, or alloys.
In an embodiment, such support materials into which the former
materials are embedded as a mixture, compound, or solution
includes carbon, silica, nickel, copper, titania, zinc oxide,
chromia, magnesia, zirconia, alumina, silica-alumina, and
zeolites. In an embodiment, one or more of the other components
are deposited on the support material by electroplating. The
source of energy holes to cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage" are
preferably of approximately mX27.21 eV and/or to cause molecular
hydrogen "shrinkage" are of approximately mX48.6eV where m is an
integer including the electrocatalytic ions and couples
described in my previous U.S. Patent Applications entitled
"Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser. No.
08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/107,357
filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun.
11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser.
No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed
Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application of
Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989, which are incorporated
herein by reference. The counterion of the energy hole of the
spillover catalyst includes those given in the Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics, Robert C. Weast, Editor, 58th Edition,
CRC Press, West Palm Beach, Fla., (1974) pp. B61-B178 which is
incorporated by reference herein, organic ions including benzoic
acid, phthalate, salicylate, aryl sulfonate, alky sulfate, alkyl
sulfonate, and alkyl carboxylate, and the anion of an acid which
forms an acid anhydride including sulfite, sulfate, carbonate,
bicarbonate, nitrite, nitrate, perchlorate, phosphite, hydrogen
phosphite, dihydrogen phosphite, phosphate, hydrogen phosphate,
and dihydrogen phosphate. In another embodiment the anion can be
in equilibrium with its acid and its acid anhydride.

The functionalities of the hydrogen spillover catalyst are
combined with the other functionalities as separate species or
as combinations comprising a mixture, solution, compound, or
alloy of more than one functionality. For example, in one
embodiment, the hydrogen dissociation material and the source of
energy holes each comprise homogeneous crystals--each crystal
contains one component. and these functionalities are mixed with
the conduit material without a support material. Whereas, in
another embodiment, the hydrogen dissociation material and the
source of energy holes comprise heterogeneous crystals-each
crystal contains both of the components, and the heterogeneous
crystals are mixed with the conduit material which coats a
support material. In a third exemplary embodiment, the source of
energy holes can be embedded in the conduit material. and this
combined species can be mixed with the hydrogen dissociation
material which can be embedded in the same or a different
conduit material without a support material.

A method of preparation of the hydrogen spillover catalytic
material of the present invention includes the steps of:

Mixing the components of the spillover catalyst by the method
of incipient wetness impregnation.

Thoroughly mixing the components by sintering.

A further method of preparation of the hydrogen spillover
catalytic material of the present invention includes the steps
of:

Dissolving or dispersing the components to be mixed in a
suitable solvent such as water and drying the solution or
mixture.

Removing the solvent by drying, or the wet mixture, suspension,
or solution can be frozen and the solvent can be sublimed.

Thoroughly mixing the components by sintering.

An incipient wetness method of preparation of the hydrogen
spillover catalytic material of the present invention comprising
a source of energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms that hinge
on the transfer of an electron from a cation to another includes
the steps of:

Dissolving a desired weight of the ionic salts of the cations
into a desired volume of solvent. In a preferred embodiment, the
ionic salts are dissolved in deionized demineralized water.

Preparing an incipiently wet conduit-hydrogen dissociation
material by uniformly wetting the conduit-hydrogen dissociation
material with the dissolved salt solution so that the pores of
the material are just filled. The total volume of solvent
required can be the desired amount, and the weight percent of
the ionic salts of the cations in the final material can be
determined by the desired weight of the ionic salts of the
cations dissolved in the desired volume of solvent.

Mechanically mixing the wetted material to insure uniform
wetting.

Drying the incipiently wet conduit-hydrogen dissociation
material in an oven preferably at a temperature of 150.degree.
C. In an embodiment the material can be heated until the
counterion(s) of the cations chemically decompose to preferably
oxides.

Pulverizing the dried material comprised of the
conduit-hydrogen dissociation-source of energy holes material
into a powder.

Optionally, mechanically mixing the dried and powdered material
with further hydrogen dissociation material including a powder
mixed with a conduit material and a support material.

**Example of a Ionic Hydrogen Spillover Catalytic Material:
40% by Weight Potassium Nitrate (KNO.sub.3) on
1%-Pd-on-Graphitic Carbon Powder**

To prepare one kilogram of the ionic hydrogen spillover
catalytic material: 40% by weight potassium nitrate (KNO.sub.3)
on 1%-Pd-on-graphitic carbon powder, 0.40 kg of KNO.sub.3 are
dissolved in 1 liter of H.sub.2 O. Incipient wetness requires 1
ml of H.sub.2 O per gram of -300 mesh graphite powder, and 0.67
grams of KNO.sub.3 are required per gram of graphitic carbon
powder to achieve a 40% by weight KNO.sub.3 content in the final
material. The aqueous KNO.sub.3 solution can be slowly added to
0.6 kg of 1%-Pd-on-300-mesh-graphitic carbon powder as the
slurry can be mixed. The slurry can be then placed on an
evaporation dish which can be inserted into an oven at
150.degree. C. for one hour. Heating causes the water to
evaporate from the slurry. The KNO.sub.3 coated
1%-Pd-on-graphitic carbon can be ground into a powder.

Another incipient wetness method of preparation of the hydrogen
spillover catalytic material of the present invention comprising
a source of energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms that hinge
on the transfer of an electron from a cation to another includes
the steps of:

Dissolving a desired weight of the ionic salts of the cations
into a desired volume of solvent. In a preferred embodiment, the
ionic salts are dissolved in deionized demineralized water.

Preparing an incipiently wet conduit material by uniformly
wetting the conduit material with the dissolved salt solution so
that the pores of the material are just filled. The total volume
of solvent required can be the desired amount, and the weight
percent of the ionic salts of the cations in the final material
can be determined by the desired weight of the ionic salts of
the cations dissolved in the desired volume of solvent.

Mechanically mixing the wetted material to insure uniform
wetting.

Drying the incipiently wet conduit material in an oven
preferably at a temperature of 150.degree. C. In an embodiment,
the material can be heated until the counterion(s) of the
cations chemically decompose to preferably oxides.

Pulverizing the dried material comprised of the conduit
material and the source of energy holes into a powder.

Mechanically mixing the dried and powdered material with a
hydrogen dissociation material including a powder mixed with a
conduit material and a support material.

Example of a Ionic Hydrogen Spillover Catalytic Material: 40%
by Weight Potassium Nitrate (KNO.sub.3) on Graphitic Carbon
Powder with 5% by Weight 1%-Pd-on-Graphitic Carbon Powder

To prepare one kilogram of the ionic hydrogen spillover
catalytic material: 40% by weight potassium nitrate (KNO.sub.3)
on graphitic carbon powder with 5% by weight 1%-Pd-on-graphitic
carbon powder, 0.67 kg of KNO.sub.3 are dissolved in 1 liter of
H.sub.2 O. Incipient wetness requires 1 ml of H.sub.2 O per gram
of -300 mesh graphite powder, and 0.40 grams of KNO.sub.3 are
required per gram of graphite powder to achieve a 40% by weight
KNO.sub.3 content in the final material. The aqueous KNO.sub.3
solution can be slowly added to 0.55 kg of graphite powder as
the slurry can be mixed. The slurry can be then placed on an
evaporation dish which can be inserted into an oven at
150.degree. C. for one hour. Heating causes the water to
evaporate from the slurry. The KNO.sub.3 coated graphite can be
ground into a powder. The powder can be weighed. Approximately
50 grams (5% of the weight of the KNO.sub.3 coated graphite) of
1%-Pd-on--300-mesh graphitic carbon powder can be mixed into the
KNO.sub.3 coated graphitic carbon powder.

**Example of the Mode of Operation of the Exemplary Catalytic
Materials**

The catalytic material can be placed into the pressurizable
vessel 200. The vessel can be flushed with an inert gas such as
He, Ar, or Ne to remove air contaminants in the vessel. The
vessel and its contents are heated to the operational
temperature, typically 100.degree. C. to 400.degree. C., before
the vessel can be pressurized with hydrogen, typically 20 to 140
PSIG.

In an embodiment, the source of energy holes is potassium ions
(K.sup.+ /K.sup.+) or rubidium ions (Rb.sup.+) intercalated into
carbon. In another embodiment, the source of energy holes is an
amalgam of the electrocatalytic ion or couple and its reduced
metallic form such as rubidium ions (Rb.sup.+) and rubidium
metal or potassium ions (K.sup.+ /K.sup.+) and potassium metal.

In an embodiment, the source of hydrogen atoms is a hydrogen
dissociation means including a hydrogen gas stream blown over a
hot filament or grid such as a hot refractory metal including a
filament or grid of Ti, Ni, Fe, W, Au, Pt, or Pd at an elevated
temperature such as 1800.degree. C. The dissociation means
provides hydrogen atoms as well as hydrogen ions, and the
momentum of the atoms brings them in contact with the source of
energy holes. Or, the hydrogen atoms and ions sputter onto the
spillover catalyst. In one preferred embodiment of the
pressurized gas reactor, a low pressure can be maintained by
pressure regulator means 222 and a pump means 223 to minimize
hydrogen atom recombination into molecular hydrogen and remove
(molecular) lower-energy hydrogen.

In an embodiment the source of hydrogen atoms is water which
dissociates to hydrogen atoms and oxygen on a water dissociation
material such as an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of
transition elements and inner transition elements, iron,
platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc,
Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta,
W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho,
Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal (carbon), and
intercalated Cs carbon (graphite). In a further embodiment, the
water dissociation material can be maintained at an elevated
temperature by a heat source and temperature control means 230.
In an embodiment including one comprising a hydrogen spillover
catalyst, the source of hydrogen can be from hydrocarbons
including natural gas which can be reformed on a reforming a
material such as nickel, cobalt, iron, or a platinum-group metal
to hydrogen atoms and carbon dioxide. In a further embodiment,
the reforming material can be maintained at an elevated
temperature by a heat source and a temperature control means
230. In another embodiment, the source of hydrogen atoms can be
from the decomposition of a metal hydride where the
decomposition can be controlled by controlling the temperature
of the metal hydride with the heat source and temperature
control means 230. In another embodiment, the hydride can be
coated by methods including electroplating with another material
such as the hydrogen dissociation material.

In a preferred embodiment a product of the shrinkage reaction,
(molecular) lower-energy hydrogen, can be removed to prevent
product inhibition. Thus, the forward energy yielding reaction
rate can be increased. One means to remove lower-energy
(molecular) hydrogen is to supply the reaction mixture with a
scavenger for lower-energy hydrogen. The scavenger absorbs or
reacts with the product, lower-energy, hydrogen, and the
resulting species can be removed from the reaction mixture. In
another embodiment lower-energy hydrogen which is absorbed on
the catalysts can be removed via displacement with an inert
molecule or atom such as helium that flows through the vessel
200.

Other objects, features, and characteristics of the art of
catalysis as well as the methods of preparation, operation and
the functions of the related elements, as described by
Satterfield [Charles N. Satterfield, Heterogeneous Catalysis in
Industrial Practice, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New
York, (1991)] are applied to the present invention and are
incorporated by reference herein. Application of the art of
catalysis to the present invention of a pressurized gas energy
reactor for the release of energy by the catalytic reaction
wherein the electrons of hydrogen atoms undergo transitions to
lower energy states include the use of an adiabatic reactor,
fluidized-bed reactor, transport line reactor, multitube
reactor, reverse multitube reactor having the heat exchange
means including a fluid in the tubes and the catalytic material
surrounding the tubes, and a multitube reactor or reverse
multitube reactor comprising a fluidized bed of the catalytic
material. Furthermore, in an embodiment comprising a solvated
source of energy holes, a suspended hydrogen dissociation
material including a hydrogen spillover catalyst, and hydrogen
gas, the reactor comprises a trickle-bed reactor, a
bubble-column reactor, or a slurry reactor.

For example, in a preferred embodiment, the fluidized bed
reactor 200 comprises the hydrogen spillover catalytic material:
40% by weight potassium nitrate (KNO.sub.3) on graphitic carbon
powder with 5% by weight 1%-Pd-on-graphitic carbon powder. The
reacting hydrogen gas can be passed up through a bed of the
finely divided solid catalytic material, preferably having a
particle size in the range of about 20 to 100 .mu.m, which can
be highly agitated and assumes many of the characteristics of a
fluid. A cyclone separator 275 returns the fines to the bed. The
hydrogen pressure and flow rate are controlled by pressure and
flow rate control means 222. Preferably at atmospheric or
slightly higher pressures, the corresponding maximum linear
velocity can be less than 60 cm/s.

**Gaseous Source of Energy Holes**

A preferred hydrogen gas energy reactor for the release of
energy by an electrocatalytic and/or a disproportination
reaction, wherein the electrons of hydrogen atoms undergo
transitions to lower energy states in the gas phase, comprises a
vessel 200 of FIG. 7 capable of containing a vacuum or pressures
greater than atmospheric; a source of hydrogen 221; a means 222
to control the pressure and flow of hydrogen into the vessel; a
source of atomic hydrogen in the gas phase, and a source of
energy holes in the gas phase.

The reaction vessel 200 comprises a vacuum or pressure vessel
comprised of a temperature resistance material such as ceramic,
stainless steel, tungsten, alumina, Incoloy, and Inconel.

In an embodiment, the source of hydrogen atoms in the gas phase
is a hydrogen dissociation means including a hydrogen gas stream
blown over a hot filament or grid 280 such as a hot refractory
metal including a filament or grid of Ti, Ni, Fe, W, Au, Pt, or
Pd at an elevated temperature such as 1800.degree. C. The
dissociation means provides hydrogen atoms as well as hydrogen
ions, and the momentum of the atoms brings them in contact with
the source of energy holes. In a preferred embodiment of the
gaseous-source-of-energy-holes gas reactor, a low pressure can
be maintained by pressure regulator means 222 and a pressure
measurement and pump means 223 to minimize hydrogen atom
recombination into molecular hydrogen. The pressure can be
measured by measuring the power dissipated in the hot filament
or grid which can be operated at constant resistance by a servo
loop 285 comprising a voltage and current measurement means, a
power supply, and a voltage and current controller where the
hydrogen pressure versus power dissipation of the filament or
grid at the operating resistance has been calibrated. In another
embodiment, the source of atomic hydrogen comprises one or more
hydrogen dissociation materials which provide hydrogen atoms by
dissociation of molecular hydrogen. Such hydrogen dissociation
materials include surfaces or materials to dissociate hydrogen,
deuterium, or tritium, including a hydrogen spillover material
such as palladium or platinum on carbon and an element,
compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements and inner
transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium,
vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo,
Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr,
Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U,
activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon
(graphite). In one embodiment, nonequilibrium conditions of the
hydrogen and hydride are maintained by controlling the
temperature and hydrogen pressure to provide atomic hydrogen in
the gas phase. In another embodiment, the source of atomic
hydrogen comprises a tungsten capillary which on the outlet can
be heated by electron bombardment to 1800-2000 K such as the
atomic hydrogen source described by Bischler [Bischler, U.;
Bertel, E., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A. (1993), 11(2), 458-60]
which is incorporated herein by reference. In a further
embodiment, the tungsten capillary can be heated by the energy
released by the hydrogen shrinkage reaction. In another
embodiment, the source of atomic hydrogen comprises an
inductively coupled plasma flow tube such as that described by
Gardner [Gardner, W. L., J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A. (1995), 13(3,
Pt. 1), 763-6] which is incorporated herein by reference, and
the hydrogen dissociation fraction can be measured with the
sensor of Gardner.

The source of energy holes can be placed in a chemically
resistant open container such as a ceramic boat 290 inside the
reaction vessel. Or, the source of energy holes can be placed in
a vessel which has a connection for the passage of the gaseous
source of energy holes to the reaction vessel.

The cell can have a boat or container, which is connected to
the reaction vessel, for containing the material used for
forming the gaseous catalyst.

The gaseous source of energy holes includes those that sublime,
boil, and/or are volatile at the elevated operating temperature
of the gas energy reactor wherein the shrinkage reaction occurs
in the gas phase. For example, RbNO.sub.3 and KNO.sub.3 are each
volatile at a temperature much less than that at which each
decomposes [C. J. Hardy, B. O. Field, J. Chem. Soc., (1963), pp.
5130-5134]. In one embodiment, the ionic hydrogen spillover
catalytic material: 40% by weight potassium or rubidium nitrate
on graphitic carbon powder with 5% by weight 1%-Pd-on-graphitic
carbon powder can be operated at a temperate at which the
potassium or rubidium nitrate can be volatile. Further
disproportionation reactions of the product, lower-energy
hydrogen atoms, release additional heat energy.

In a preferred embodiment, the source of energy holes is a
thermally stable salt of rubidium or potassium such as RbF,
RbCl, RbBr, RbI, Rb.sub.2 S.sub.2, RbOH, Rb.sub.2 SO.sub.4,
Rb.sub.2 CO.sub.3, Rb.sub.3 PO.sub.4, and KF, KCl, KBr, KI,
K.sub.2 S.sub.2, KOH, K.sub.2 SO.sub.4, K.sub.2 CO.sub.3,
K.sub.3 PO.sub.4, K.sub.2 GeF.sub.4. Further preferred sources
of energy holes of approximately mX27.21 eV to cause atomic
hydrogen "shrinkage" and/or approximately mX48.6 eV to cause
molecular hydrogen "shrinkage" where m is an integer include the
electrocatalytic ions and couples described in my previous U.S.
Patent Applications entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods
and Structures", Ser. No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040
filed on Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102
(Dkt. 99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on
Dec. 12, 1990 which is a continuation-in-part application of
Ser. No. 07/345,628 filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed
Apr. 21, 1989, which are incorporated herein by reference. The
counterion includes those given in the Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics, Robert C. Weast, Editor, 58th Edition, CRC Press, West
Palm Beach, Fla., (1974) pp. B61-B178 which is incorporated by
reference herein. The preferred anion can be stable to hydrogen
reduction and thermal decomposition and can be volatile at the
operating temperature of the energy reactor.

The catalyst may be an ionic compound which is resistant to
hydrogen reduction. Moreover, the catalyst is adapted to provide
gaseous atoms which may be ionized.

The following compounds are preferred gaseous sources of energy
holes in the gas energy reactor. Higher temperatures result in a
higher vapor pressure of the source of energy holes which
increases the reaction rate; however, the increase in total
pressure increases the recombination rate of hydrogen atoms to
hydrogen molecules. In each exemplary case that follows, the
operating temperature of the energy reactor can be that which
provides an optimal reaction rate. In an embodiment, the cell
temperature can be about 50.degree. C. higher than the (highest)
melting point of the source of energy holes (in the case that
the source of energy holes comprises an electron transfer
between two cations--an electrocatalytic couple). The hydrogen
pressure can be maintained at about 200 millitorr, and molecular
hydrogen can be dissociated with a hot filament or grid 280 of
FIG. 7.

Single Ion Catalysts (Electrocatalytic Ions)

Single-ion catalysts (electrocatalytic ions) capable of
producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms. The number
following the atomic symbol (n) is the nth ionization energy of
the atom. That is for example, Rb.sup.+ +27.28 eV=Rb.sup.2+
+e.sup.-. (melting point=(MP); boiling point=(BP))

    \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_   
    Catalytic   
   
Ion         
n      nth ionization energy   
    \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_   
    Mo.sup.2+   
3      27.16   
    MoI.sub.2   
    Ti.sup.2+   
3      27.49   
    TiCl.sub.2 (MP = subl H.sub.2,BP = d
475.degree. C. vac)   
    (TiCl.sub.4 /Ti.sub.metal)   
    Rb.sup.1+   
2      27.28   
    RbNO.sub.3 (MP = 310.degree. C.,BP = subl)   
    Rb.sub.2 S.sub.2 (MP = 420.degree. C.,BP =
volat > 850)   
    RbI(MP = 647.degree. C.,BP = 1300.degree. C.)
  
    \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

**Two Ion Catalyts (Electrocatalytic Couples)**

Two-ion catalysts (electrocatalytic couples) capable of
producing energy holes for shrinking hydrogen atoms. The number
in the column following the ion, (n), is the nth ionization
energy of the atom. That is for example, K.sup.+ +31.63
eV=K.sup.2+ +e.sup.- and K.sup.+ +e.sup.- =K+4.34 eV. (melting
point=(MP); boiling point=(BP))

    \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_   
    Atom   
    Energy   
   
Oxidiz-         
nth
Ion-              
nth
Ion-   
   
Hole            
ization               
ization
  
   
ed              
Energy  
Atom         
Energy
  
    (ev)    
n      
(ev)     Reduced  n   
(ev)   
    \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_   
    Sn 4+   
5       72.28    Si
4+    4    45.14   
    27.14   
    SnCl.sub.4 (MP = -33.degree. C.,BP =
114.1.degree. C.) SiCl.sub.4 (MP =   
    -70.degree. C.,   
    BP = 57.57.degree. C.)   
    Pr 3+   
4       38.98    Ca
2+    2    11.87   
    27.11   
    PrBr.sub.3 (MP = 691.degree. C.,BP =
1547.degree. C.) CaBr.sub.2 (MP =   
    730.degree. C. sl d,   
    BP = 806 - 812.degree. C.)   
    Sr 2+   
3       43.60    Cr
2+    2    16.50   
    27.10   
    SrCl.sub.2 (MP = 875.degree. C.,BP =
1250.degree. C.) CrI.sub.2 (MP =   
    856.degree. C.,   
    BP = 800 sub vac.degree. C.)   
    Cr 3+   
4       49.10    Tb
3+    3    21.91   
    27.19   
    CrF.sub.3 (MP = >1000.degree. C.,BP = 1100
- 1200.degree. C. subl)   
    TbI.sub.3 (MP =   
    946.degree. C.,BP > 1300.degree. C.)   
    Sb 3+   
4       44.20    Co
2+    2    17.06   
    27.14   
    SbCl.sub.3 (MP = 73.4.degree. C.,BP =
283.degree. C.) CoCl.sub.2 (MP =   
    724.degree. C.   
    in HCl gas, BP = 1049.degree. C.)   
    Bi 3+   
4       45.30    Ni
2+    2    18.17   
    27.13   
    BiCl.sub.3 (MP = 230 - 232.degree. C.,BP =
447.degree. C.) NiCl.sub.2 (MP   
    = 1001.degree. C.,   
    BP = 973.degree. C. subl)   
    Pd 2+   
3       32.93    In
1+    1    5.79   
    27.14   
    PdF.sub.2 (MP = volat) InCl(MP = 225.degree.
C.,BP = 608.degree. C.)   
    La 3+   
4       49.95    Dy
3+    3    22.80   
    27.15   
    LaCl.sub.3 (MP = 860.degree. C.,BP >
1000.degree. C.) DyCl.sub.3 (MP =   
    718.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1500.degree. C.)   
    La 3+   
4       49.95    Ho
3+    3    22.84   
    27.11   
    LaI.sub.3 (MP = 772.degree. C.) HoI.sub.3 (MP
= 989.degree. C.,BP =   
    1300.degree. C.)   
    K 1+    
2       31.63    K
1+     1    4.34   
    27.28   
    KNO.sub.3 (MP = 334.degree. C.,BP = subl)
KNO.sub.3 (MP = 334.degree.   
    C.,BP = subl)   
    K.sub.2 S.sub.2 (MP = 470.degree. C.) K.sub.2
S.sub.2 (MP = 470.degree.   
    C.)   
    KI(MP = 681.degree. C.,BP = 1330.degree. C.)
KI(MP = 681.degree. C.,BP =   
    1330.degree. C.)   
    V 3+    
4       46.71    Pd
2+    2    19.43   
    27.28   
    VF.sub.3 (MP > 800.degree. C.,BP Subl)
PbF.sub.2 (MP = 855.degree. C.,BP   
    = 1290.degree. C.)   
    VOCl(BP = 127.degree. C.) PbI.sub.2 (MP =
402.degree. C.,BP = 954.degree.   
    C.)   
    Lu 3+   
4       45.19    Zn
2+    2    17.96   
    27.23   
    LuCl.sub.3 (MP = 905.degree. C.,BP = subl
750.degree. C.) PbCl.sub.2 (MP   
    = 283.degree. C.,   
    BP = 732.degree. C.)   
    As 3+   
4       50.13    Ho
3+    3    22.84   
    27.29   
    AsI.sub.3 (MP = 146.degree. C.,BP =
403.degree. C.) HoI.sub.3 (MP =   
    989.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1300.degree. C.)   
    Mo 5+   
6       68.00    Sn
4+    4    40.73   
    27.27   
    MoCl.sub.5 (MP = 194.degree. C.,BP =
268.degree. C.) SnCl.sub.4 (MP =   
    -33.degree. C.,   
    BP = 114.1.degree. C.)   
    Sb 3+   
4       44.20    Cd
2+    2    16.91   
    27.29   
    SbI.sub.3 (MP = 170.degree. C.,BP =
401.degree. C.) CdI.sub.2 (MP =   
    387.degree. C.,   
    BP = 796.degree. C.)   
    Ag 2+   
3       34.83    Ag
1+    1    7.58   
    27.25   
    AgF.sub.2 (MP = 690.degree. C.,BP =
700.degree. C. d) AgF(MP   
    = 435.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1159.degree. C.)   
    La 3+   
4       49.95    Er
3+    3    22.74   
    27.21   
    LaI.sub.3 (MP = 772.degree. C.,BP =
1000.degree. C.) ErI.sub.3 (MP =   
    1020.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1280.degree. C.)   
    V 4+    
5       65.23    B
3+     3    37.93   
    27.30   
    VCl.sub.4 (MP = -28.degree. C.,BP =
148.5.degree. C.) BCl.sub.3 (MP =   
    -107.3.degree. C.,   
    BP = 12.5.degree. C.)   
    Fe 3+   
4       54.80    Ti
3+    3    27.49   
    27.31   
    FeCl.sub.3 (MP = 306.degree. C.,BP =
315.degree. C. d) TiCl.sub.3 (MP =   
    440.degree. C. d,   
    BP = 660.degree. C.)   
    Co 2+   
3       33.50    Tl
1+    1    6.11   
    27.39   
    CoI.sub.2 (MP = 515 vac.degree. C.,BP =
570.degree. C. vac) TlI(MP =   
    440.degree. C. d,   
    BP = 823.degree. C.)   
    CoF.sub.2 (MP = 1200.degree. C.,BP =
1400.degree. C.) TIF(MP= 327.degree.   
    C. d,   
    BP = 655.degree. C.)   
    Bi 3+   
4       45.30    Zn
2+    2    17.96   
    27.34   
    BiBr.sub.3 (MP = 218.degree. C.,BP =
453.degree. C.) ZnBr.sub.2 (MP =   
    394.degree. C. d,   
    BP = 650.degree. C.)   
    As 3+   
4       50.13    Dy
3+    3    22.80   
    27.33   
    AsI.sub.3 (MP = 146.degree. C.,BP =
403.degree. C.) DyI.sub.3 (MP =   
    955.degree. C. d,   
    BP = 1320.degree. C.)   
    Ho 3+   
4       42.50    Mg
2+    2    15.03   
    27.47   
    HoCl.sub.3 (MP = 718.degree. C.,BP =
1500.degree. C.) MgCl.sub.2 (MP =   
    714.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1412.degree. C.)   
    K 1+    
2       31.63    Rb
1+    1    4.18   
    27.45   
    KI(MP = 618.degree. C.,BP = 1330.degree. C.)
RbI(MP = 647.degree. C.,BP =   
    1300.degree. C.)   
    Cr 3+   
4       49.10    Pr
3+    3    21.62   
    27.48   
    CrCl.sub.3 (MP = 1150.degree. C.,BP =
1300.degree. C. subl) PrCl.sub.3   
    (MP = 786.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1700.degree. C.)   
    Sr 2+   
3       43.60    Fe
2+    2    16.18   
    27.42   
    SrCl.sub.2 (MP = 875.degree. C.,BP =
1250.degree. C.) FeCl.sub.2 (MP =   
    670.degree. C.,BP subl)   
    Ni 2+   
3       35.17    Cu
1+    1    7.73   
    27.44   
    NiCl.sub.2 (MP = 1001.degree. C.,BP =
973.degree. C. subl) CuCl(MP =   
    430.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1490.degree. C.)   
    Sr 2+   
3       43.60    Mo
2+    2    16.15

    27.45   
    SrCl.sub.2 (MP = 875.degree. C.,BP =
1250.degree. C.) MoCl.sub.2   
    Y 3+    
4       61.80    Zr
4+    4    34.34   
    27.46   
    YCl.sub.3 (MP = 721.degree. C.,BP =
1507.degree. C.) ZrCl.sub.4 (MP =   
    437.degree. C.,   
    BP = 331.degree. C. subl)   
    Cd 2+   
3       37.48    Ba
2+    2    10.00   
    27.48   
    CdI.sub.2 (MP = 387.degree. C.,BP =
796.degree. C.) BaI.sub.2 (MP =   
    740.degree. C.)   
    Ho 3+   
4       42.50    Pb
2+    2    15.03   
    27.47   
    HoI.sub.3 (MP = 989.degree. C.,BP =
1300.degree. C.) PbI.sub.2 (MP =   
    402.degree. C.,   
    BP= 954.degree. C.)   
    Pd 2+   
3       32.93    Li
1+    1    5.39   
    27.54   
    PdF.sub.2 (MP = volat) LiF(MP = 845.degree.
C.,BP = 1676.degree. C.)   
    Eu 3+   
4       42.60    Mg
2+    2    15.03   
    27.56   
    EuCl.sub.3 (MP = 850.degree. C.) MgCl.sub.2
(MP = 714.degree. C.,BP =   
    1412.degree. C.)   
    Er 3+   
4       42.60    Mg
2+    2    15.03   
    27.56   
    ErCl.sub.3 (MP = 774.degree. C.,BP =
1500.degree. C.) MgCl.sub.2 (MP =   
    714.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1412.degree. C.)   
    Bi 4+   
5       56.00    Al
3+    3    28.45   
    27.55   
    BiCl.sub.4 (MP = 226.degree. C.) AlCl.sub.3
(MP = 190.degree. C.,BP =   
    177.8.degree. C. subl)   
    Ca 2+   
3       50.91    Sm
3+    3    23.40   
    27.51   
    CaBr.sub.2 (MP = 730.degree. C. sl d, BP =
806 - 812.degree. C.)   
    SmBr.sub.3 (MP   
    subl > 1000.degree. C.)   
    V 3+    
4       46.71    La
3+    3    19.18   
    27.53   
    VaF.sub.3 (MP > 800.degree. C., subl)
LaCl.sub.3 (MP = 860.degree. C.,BP   
    > 1000.degree. C.)   
    Gd 3+   
4       44.00    Cr
2+    2    16.50   
    27.50   
    GdI.sub.3 (MP = 926.degree. C.,BP =
1340.degree. C.) CrI.sub.2 (MP =   
    856.degree. C.,   
    BP = 800.degree. C. subl vac)   
    Mn 2+   
3       33.67    Ti
1+    1    6.11   
    27.56   
    MnI.sub.2 (MP = 638.degree. C. vac, BP =
500.degree. C. subl vac) TIF(MP   
    = 327.degree. C.,   
    BP = 655.degree. C.)   
    Yb 3+   
4       43.70    Fe
2+    2    16.18   
    27.52   
    YbBr.sub.3 (MP = 956.degree. C.,BP = d)
FeBr.sub.2 (MP = 684.degree. C.   
    d)   
    Ni 2+   
3       35.17    Ag
1+    1    7.58   
    27.59   
    NiCl.sub.2 (MP = 1001.degree. C.,BP =
973.degree. C. subl) AgCl(MP =   
    455.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1550.degree. C.)   
    Zn 2+   
3       39.72    Yb
2+    2    12.18   
    27.54   
    ZnCl.sub.2 (MP = 283.degree. C.,BP =
732.degree. C. subl) YbCl.sub.2 (MP   
    = 702.degree. C.,   
    BP = 1900.degree. C.)   
    Se 4+   
5       68.30    Sn
4+    4    40.73   
    27.57   
    SeF.sub.4 (MP = -13.8.degree. C.,BP >
100.degree. C.) SnCl.sub.4 (MP =   
    -33.degree. C.,   
    BP = 114.1.degree. C.)   
            
SnF.sub.4
(MP = 705.degree. C.subl)   
    Sb 3+   
4       44.20    Bi
2+    2    16.69   
    27.51   
    SbI.sub.3 (MP = 170.degree. C.,BP =
401.degree. C.) BiI.sub.2 (MP =   
    400.degree. C.,   
    BP = subl vac)   
    Eu 3+   
4       42.60    Pb
2+    2    15.03   
    27.57   
    EuF.sub.3 (MP = 1390.degree. C.,BP =
2280.degree. C.) PbCl.sub.2 (MP =   
    501.degree. C.,   
    BP = 950.degree. C.)   
    \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

In an embodiment wherein the anion can be reduced by hydrogen,
the anion is chemically stabilized. For example, the product of
the reduction is added to the gas cell to stabilize the anion.
In a further embodiment, the anion can be replaced continuously
or intermittently. In the case of the nitrate ion, the product
ammonia can be removed from the vessel. oxidized to nitrate, and
returned to the cell. In one embodiment, the product ammonia can
be removed from the vessel by collection in a condenser and can
be oxidized to nitrate on a platinum or iridium screen at
elevated temperatures such as 912.degree. C. In a further
embodiment, the nitrate ion to ammonia reaction can be minimized
by decreasing the hydrogen pressure while optimizing the vapor
phase catalytic hydrogen shrinkage reaction. In an embodiment, a
low pressure of hydrogen atoms can be generated by dissociation
of molecular hydrogen on a hot filament or grid 280 of FIG. 7. A
low pressure of molecular hydrogen can be maintained via the
hydrogen supply 221, the hydrogen flow control means 222, and
the hydrogen pressure measurement and vacuum means 223. The
hydrogen pressure can be maintained at a low pressure by
adjusting the supply through the inlet with flow controller 222
versus the amount pumped away at the outlet by the pressure
measurement and pump means 223. The pressure can be adjusted to
maximize the output power while minimizing the degradation of
nitrate. The optimal hydrogen pressure can be less than about
one torr. In an embodiment, the source of hydrogen atoms in the
gas phase can be a hydrogen dissociation means including a
hydrogen gas stream blown over a hot filament or grid 280 such
as a hot refractory metal including a filament or grid of Ti,
Ni, Fe, W, Au, Pt, or Pd at an elevated temperature such as
1800.degree. C. The hydrogen molecular source can be directed
over the filament or grid and onto the gaseous source of energy
holes. The pressure and flow of the hydrogen atoms prohibits the
collision of the counterion of the source of energy holes (such
as the nitrate ion) from contacting the hot filament or grid.
Thus, the thermal decomposition or reduction of the anion on the
filament or grid can be prevented. In another embodiment, a
negative potential can be maintained as a grid electrode 287
surrounding the filament or grid. The grid electrode permits the
passage of hydrogen atoms from the filament or grid and repels
the anion from contacting the hot filament or grid. Thus, the
thermal or chemical breakdown of the anion (couterion) can be
prevented.

In an embodiment, the source of energy holes is an
electrocatalytic ion or electrocatalytic couple comprising
cation-anion pairs in the gas phase wherein the cation-anion
pairs are dissociated by external source means 75 of FIG. 5
which includes, for example, a particle source 75b and/or photon
source 75a and/or a source of heat, acoustic energy, electric
fields, or magnetic fields. In a preferred embodiment, the
cation-anion pairs are thermally dissociated by heat source 230
or photodissociated by photon source 205 of FIG. 7.

In another embodiment of the gas energy reactor having a
gaseous source of energy holes, the source of energy holes is
atomized with an atomizer means 295 to provide a gaseous source
of energy holes. In a preferred embodiment of the atomizer,
atoms are boiled, sublimed, or vaporized by a heating means such
as the boat heating means 299, and the gaseous atoms are ionized
to form a source of energy holes including the electrocatalytic
ions or electrocatalytic couples of my previous patent
applications incorporated herein by reference. In one
embodiment, the atoms are thermally ionized by the heating means
230, by the hydrogen atom source 280 including a hot filament or
grid, or by an inductively coupled plasma flow tube. For
example, the gas energy cell shown in FIG. 7 comprises rubidium
or potassium metal in the boat 290 which has a vapor pressure
that can be controlled by controlling the temperature of the
boat by heating means 230 and or 299. Hydrogen molecules are
dissociated to atoms on the hot filament or grid 280. The
rubidium (potassium) metal in the gas phase can be ionized to
Rb.sup.+ (K.sup.+) by the same or different hot filament or grid
280. The Rb.sup.+ (K.sup.+ /K.sup.+) electrocatalytic ion
(couple) serves as a source of energy holes to shrink the
hydrogen atoms. In another embodiment, the hot filament or grid
280 comprises a metal(s) or can be electroplated with a metal(s)
which boils off as a cation(s) that are a source of energy
holes. For example, Mo.sup.2+ ions (Mo.sup.2+ electrocatalytic
ion) enter the gas phase of the energy cell 200 from the hot
molybdenum filament or grid 280. The hot molybdenum filament or
grid 280 also dissociates hydrogen molecules to hydrogen atoms.
For a further example, Ni.sup.2+ and Cu.sup.+ ions (Ni.sup.2+
/Cu.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple) enter the gas phase of the
energy cell 200 from the hot nickel and hot copper or hot
nickel-copper alloy filament or grid 280. In another embodiment,
the photon source 75a and the particle source 75b of FIG. 5,
including an electron beam, ionize species such as atoms in the
gas phase to form the source of energy holes including the
electrocatalytic ions or electrocatalytic couples of my previous
patent applications incorporated herein by reference. In another
embodiment, the atoms or ions are ionized chemically by a
volatilized reactant such as an ionic species which oxidizes or
reduces the atoms or ions to form a source of energy holes.

The power of the gas energy reactor can be controlled by
controlling the amount of the source of energy holes
(electrocatalytic ion or couple) in the gas phase and/or by
controlling the concentration of atomic or lower-energy
hydrogen. The concentration of the gaseous source of energy
holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) can be controlled by
controlling the initial amount of the volatile source of energy
holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) present in the reactor,
and/or by controlling the temperature of the reactor with
temperature control means 230 which determines the vapor
pressure of the volatile source of energy holes
(electrocatalytic ion or couple). The reactor temperature
further controls the power by changing the rate of the catalytic
hydrogen shrinkage reaction. The concentration of atomic
hydrogen can be controlled by controlling the amount of atomic
hydrogen provided by the atomic hydrogen source 280. For
example, the amount of hydrogen atoms in the gas phase can be
controlled by controlling the flow of hydrogen over or through
the hot filament or grid, the tungsten capillary heated by
electron bombardment, or the inductively coupled plasma flow
tube; by controlling the power dissipated in the inductively
coupled plasma flow tube; by controlling the temperature of the
hot filament or grid, or the tungsten capillary heated by
electron bombardment; by controlling the pressure of the
hydrogen and temperature of the hydride maintained under
nonequilibrium conditions, and by controlling the rate of
removal of recombined hydrogen from the cell by pump means 223.
Another means to control the shrinkage reaction rate can be by
controlling the pressure of a non reactive gas with non reactive
gas source 299, non reactive gas flow control means 232, and
pressure measurement and pump means 223. The non reactive gas
such as a noble gas competes with collisions between the source
of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) and hydrogen
atoms or competes with collisions that yield lower-energy
hydrogen disproportionation reactions. Noble gases include He,
Ne, and Ar. Further such reaction non reactive "reaction
quenching" gases include carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

The hydrogen partial pressure can be further controlled by
throttling hydrogen into the cell by a hydrogen value control
means 222 while monitoring the pressure with a pressure
measurement means 222 and 223. In a preferred embodiment, the
hydrogen pressure can be controlled by controlling the
temperature with heating means 230 of the gas energy reactor
which further comprises a hydrogen storage means such as a metal
hydride or other hydride including saline hydrides, titanium
hydride, vanadium, niobium, and tantalum hydrides, zirconium and
hafnium hydrides, rare earth hydrides, yttrium and scandium
hydrides, transition element hydrides, intermetalic hydrides,
and their alloys known in the art as given by W. M. Mueller, J.
P. Blackledge, and G. G. Libowitz, Metal Hydrides, Academic
Press, New York, (1968), Hydrogen in Intermetalic Compounds I,
Edited by L. Schlapbach, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, and Hydrogen
in Intermetalic Compounds II, Edited by L. Schlapbach,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, which are incorporated by reference
herein. The temperature of the cell can be controlled by a
temperature control and measurement means 230 such that the
vapor pressure of the hydrogen in equilibrium with the hydrogen
storage material can be the desired pressure. In one embodiment,
nonequilibrium conditions of the hydrogen and hydride are
maintained by controlling the temperature and hydrogen pressure
to provide atomic hydrogen. In several embodiments, the hydrogen
storage means can be a rare earth hydride with an operating
temperature of about 800.degree. C.; lanthanum hydride with an
operating temperature of about 700.degree. C.; gadolinium
hydride with an operating temperature of about 750.degree. C.;
neodymium hydride with an operating temperature of about
750.degree. C.; yttrium hydride with an operating temperature of
about 800.degree. C.; scandium hydride with an operating
temperature of about 800.degree. C.; ytterbium hydride with an
operating temperature of about 850-900.degree. C.; titanium
hydride with an operating temperature of about 450.degree. C.;
cerium hydride with an operating temperature of about
950.degree. C.; praseodymium hydride with an operating
temperature of about 700.degree. C.; zirconium-titanium
(50%/50%) hydride with an operating temperature of about
600.degree. C.; an alkali metal/alkali metal hydride mixture
such as Rb/RbH or K/KH with an operating temperature of about
450.degree. C., and an alkaline earth metal/alkaline earth
hydride mixture such as Ba/BaH.sub.2 with an operating
temperature of about 900-1000.degree. C.

The heat output can be monitored with thermocouples present in
at least the vessel 200 and the heat exchanger 60 of FIG. 5. The
rate of the shrinkage reaction rate can be monitored by
ultraviolet or electron spectroscopy of the photons or electrons
emitted via lower-energy hydrogen transitions, by X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) of lower-energy hydrogen, and
by mass spectroscopy, Raman or infrared spectroscopy, and gas
chromatography of the molecular lower-energy hydrogen
(dihydrino). Lower-energy hydrogen atoms and molecules are
identified by XPS as higher binding energy species than normal
hydrogen. The dihydrino can be identified by mass spectroscopy
as a species with a mass to charge ratio of two (m/e=2) that has
a higher ionization potential than that of normal hydrogen by
recording the ion current as a function of the electron gun
energy. The dihydrino can be identified by gas chromatography at
low temperature such as gas chromatography with an activated
carbon (charcoal) column at liquid nitrogen temperature or with
a column that will separate para from ortho hydrogen such as an
Rt-Alumina column, or a HayeSep column at liquid nitrogen
temperature wherein normal hydrogen can be retained to a greater
extent than dihydrino. The dihydrino can be identified by Raman
and infrared spectroscopy as a molecule with higher vibrational
and rotational energy levels as compared to those of normal
hydrogen. The output power can be controlled by a computerized
monitoring and control system which monitors the thermistors,
spectrometers, and gas chromatograph and controls the means to
alter the power output. The (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen
can be removed by a means 201 to prevent the exothermic
shrinkage reaction from coming to equilibrium.

In another embodiment of the gas energy reactor having a
gaseous source of energy holes, hydrogen atoms are produced by a
pyrolysis reaction such as the combustion of a hydrocarbon
wherein the catalytic source of energy holes can be in the gas
phase with the hydrogen atoms. In a preferred mode, the
pyrolysis reaction occurs in an internal combustion engine
whereby the hydrocarbon or hydrogen containing fuel comprises a
source of energy holes that are vaporized (become gaseous)
during the combustion. In a preferred mode, the source of energy
holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) is a thermally stable
salt of rubidium or potassium such as RbF, RbCl, RbBr, RbI,
Rb.sub.2 S.sub.2, RbOH, Rb.sub.2 SO.sub.4, Rb.sub.2 CO.sub.3,
Rb.sub.3 PO.sub.4, and KF, KCl, KBr, KI, K.sub.2 S.sub.2, KOH,
K.sub.2 SO.sub.4, K.sub.2 CO.sub.3, K.sub.3 PO.sub.4, K.sub.2
GeF.sub.4. Additional counterions of the electrocatalytic ion or
couple include organic anions including wetting or emulsifying
agents. In another embodiment, the hydrocarbon or hydrogen
containing fuel further comprises water as a mixture and a
solvated source of energy holes including emulsified
electrocatalytic ions or couples. During the pyrolysis reaction,
water serves as a further source of hydrogen atoms which undergo
a shrinkage reaction catalyzed by the source of energy holes
wherein the water can be dissociated to hydrogen atoms thermally
or catalytically on a surface such as the cylinder or piston
head which can be comprised of material which dissociates water
to hydrogen and oxygen. The water dissociation material includes
an element, compound, alloy, or mixture of transition elements
and inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium,
zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn,
Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au,
Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th,
Pa, U. activated charcoal (carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon
(graphite).

**POWER DENSITY OF GAS ENERGY REACTOR (GAS PHASE HYDROGEN
SHRINKAGE REACTION)**

The equations numbers which follow referred to those given by
Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum
Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster,
Pa.]. The rate of the disproportionation reaction, r.sub.m,m',p,
to cause resonant shrinkage, Eqs. (5.22-5.30), is dependent on
the collision rate between the reactants and the efficiency of
resonant energy transfer. It is given by the product of the rate
constant, k.sub.m,m',p, (Eq. (5.47)), the total number of
hydrogen or hydrino atoms, N.sub.H, and the efficiency, E (Eq.
(6.33)), of the transfer of the resonance shrinkage energy from
the donor hydrino atom to the energy hole provided by the
acceptor hydrino atom, ##EQU96## where r is the distance between
the donor and the acceptor, J is the overlap integral between
the resonance shrinkage energy distribution of the donor hydrino
atom and the distribution of the energy hole provided by the
acceptor hydrino atom, .eta. is the dielectric constant, and
.kappa..sup.2 is a function of the mutual orientation of the
donor and acceptor transition moments. Electronic transitions of
lower-energy hydrogen atoms occur only by nonradiative energy
transfer; thus, the quantum yield of the fluorescence of the
donor, .PHI..sub.D, of Eq. (6.37) is equal to one. The rate of
the disproportionation reaction, r.sub.m,m',p, to cause resonant
shrinkage is ##EQU97## The factor of one half in Eq. (6.38)
corrects for double counting of collisions [Levine, I., Physical
Chemistry, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, (1978), pp.
420-421]. The power, P.sub.m,m',p, is given by the product of
the rate of the transition, Eq. (6.38), and the energy of the
disproportination reaction (Eq. (5.27)). ##EQU98## where V is
the volume. For a disproportionation reaction in the gas phase,
the energy transfer efficiency is one. The power given by
substitution of

E=1, p=2, m=1, m'=2, V=1 m.sup.3, N=3.times.10.sup.21, T=675
K(6.40)

into Eq. (6.39) is

P.sub.m,m',p =1 GW(1 kW/cm.sup.3) (6.41)

In the case that the reaction of hydrogen to lower-energy
states occurs by the reaction of a catalytic source of energy
holes with hydrogen or hydrino atoms, the reaction rate is
dependent on the collision rate between the reactants and the
efficiency of resonant energy transfer. The
hydrogen-or-hydrino-atom/electrocatalytic-ion collision rate per
unit volume, ##EQU99## for a gas containing n.sub.H hydrogen or
hydrino atoms per unit volume, each with radius ##EQU100## and
velocity v.sub.H and n.sub.c electrocatalytic ions per unit
volume, each with radius r.sub.Catalyst and velocity v.sub.c is
given by Levine [Levine, I., Physical Chemistry, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, (1978), pp. 420-421]. ##EQU101## The
average velocity, v.sub.avg, can be calculated from the
temperature, T, [Bueche, F. J., Introduction to Physics for
Scientists and Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
(1986), pp. 261-265]. ##EQU102## where k is Boltzmann's
constant. Substitution of Eq. (5.44) into Eq. (5.42) gives the
collision rate per unit volume, ##EQU103## in terms of the
temperature, T. ##EQU104## The rate of the catalytic reaction,
r.sub.m,p, to cause resonant shrinkage is given by the product
of the collision rate per unit volume, ##EQU105## the volume, V,
and the efficiency, E, of resonant energy transfer given by Eq.
(6.37). ##EQU106## The power, P.sub.m,p, is given by the product
of the rate of the transition, Eq. (6.45), and the energy of the
transition, Eq. (5.8). ##EQU107## In the case of a gas phase
catalytic shrinkage reaction wherein the source of energy holes
is a single cation having an ionization energy of 27.21 eV with
hydrogen or hydrino atoms, the energy transfer efficiency is
one. Rubidium (Rb.sup.+) is an electrocatalytic ion with a
second ionization energy of 27.28 eV. The power for the reaction
given by Eqs. (5.9). (5.10), and (5.8) with the substitution of

E=1, p=1, m=1, V=1 m.sup.3, N.sub.H =3.times.10.sup.21, N.sub.c
=3.times.10.sup.21, m.sub.c =1.4.times.10.sup.-25 kg, r.sub.c
=2.16.times.10.sup.-10 m, T=675 K (6.47)

into Eq. (6.46) is

P.sub.m,p =55 GW (55 kW/cm.sup.3) (6.48)

In the case that the catalytic reaction of hydrogen to
lower-energy states occurs on a surface, the energy transfer
efficiency is less than one due to differential surface
interactions of the absorbed hydrogen or hydrino atoms and the
electrocatalytic ion. The power given by Eqs. (6.46) and (6.47)
with

E=0.001 (6.49)

is

P.sub.m,p =55 MW (55 W/cm.sup.3) (6.50)

Less efficient catalytic systems hinge on the coupling of three
resonator cavities. For example, an electron transfer occurs
between two cations which comprises an energy hole for a
hydrogen or hydrino atom. The reaction rate is dependent on the
collision rate between catalytic cations and hydrogen or hydrino
atoms and the efficiency of resonant energy transfer with a
concomitant electron transfer with each shrinkage reaction. The
rate of the catalytic reaction, r.sub.m,p, to cause resonant
shrinkage is given by the product of the collision rate per unit
volume, ##EQU108## the volume, V, and the efficiency, E.sub.e,
of resonant energy transfer given by Eq. (6.37) where r is given
by the average distance between cations in the reaction vessel.
##EQU109## The power, P.sub.m,p, is given by the product of the
rate of the transition, Eq. (6.51), and the energy of the
transition, Eq. (5.8). ##EQU110## A catalytic system that hinges
on the coupling of three resonator cavities involves potassium.
For example, the second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63
eV. This energy hole is obviously too high for resonant
absorption. However, K.sup.+ releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced
to K. The combination of K.sup.+ to K.sup.2+ and K.sup.+ to K,
then, has a net energy change of 27.28 eV. Consider the case of
a gas phase catalytic shrinkage reaction of hydrogen or hydrino
atoms by potassium ions as the electrocatalytic couple having an
energy hole of 27.28 eV. The energy transfer efficiency is given
by Eq. (6.37) where r is given by the average distance between
cations in the reaction vessel. When the K.sup.+ concentration
is ##EQU111## r is approximately 5.times.10.sup.-9 m. For J=1,
.PHI..sub.D =1, .kappa..sup.2 =1, .tau..sub.D =10.sup.-13 sec
(based on the vibrational frequency of KH.sup.+), and m=1 in Eq.
(5.8), the energy transfer efficiency, E.sub.c, is approximately
0.001. The power for the reaction given by Eqs. (5.13), (5.14),
and (5.8) with the substitution of

E=0.001, p=1, m=1, V=1 m.sup.3, N.sub.H =3.times.10.sup.22,
N.sub.c =3.times.10.sup.21, m.sub.c =6.5.times.10.sup.-26 kg,
r.sub.c =1.38.times.10.sup.-10 m, T=675 K (6.53)

into Eq. (6.52) is

P.sub.m,p =300 MW (300 W/cm.sup.3) (6.54)

**Gas Discharge Energy Reactor**

A gas discharge energy reactor comprises a hydrogen isotope gas
filled glow discharge vacuum chamber 300 of FIG. 8 including an
ozonizer-type capacitor, a hydrogen source 322 which supplies
hydrogen to the chamber 300 through control valve 325, and a
voltage and current source 330 to cause current to pass between
a cathode 305 and an anode 320. In one embodiment comprising an
ozonizer-type capacitor gas discharge cell, one of the
electrodes can be shielded by a dielectric barrier such as glass
or a ceramic moiety. In a preferred embodiment, the cathode
further comprises a source of energy holes of approximately
mX27.21 eV to cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage" and/or
approximately mX48.6 eV to cause molecular hydrogen "shrinkage"
where m is an integer (including the electrocatalytic ions and
couples described in my previous U.S. patent applications
entitled "Energy/Matter Conversion Methods and Structures", Ser.
No. 08/467,051 filed on Jun. 6, 1995 which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/416,040 filed on
Apr. 3, 1995 which is a continuation-in-part application of Ser.
No. 08/107,357 filed on Aug. 16, 1993, which is a
continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 08/075,102 (Dkt.
99437) filed on Jun. 11, 1993, which is a continuation-in-part
application of Ser. No. 07/626,496 filed on Dec. 12, 1990 which
is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No. 07/345,628
filed Apr. 28, 1989 which is a continuation-in-part application
of Ser. No. 07/341,733 filed Apr. 21, 1989 which are
incorporated by reference). A preferred cathode 305 for
shrinking hydrogen atoms is a palladium cathode whereby a
resonant energy hole can be provided by the ionization of
electrons from palladium to the discharge current. A second
preferred cathode 305 for shrinking hydrogen atoms comprises a
source of energy holes via electron transfer to the discharge
current including at least one of beryllium, copper, platinum,
zinc, and tellurium and a hydrogen dissociating means such as a
source of electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided
by photon source 350 or a hydrogen dissociating material
including the transition elements and inner transition elements,
iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel,
titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd,
La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd,
Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated charcoal
(carbon), and intercalated Cs carbon (graphite). The reactor
further comprises a means to control the energy dissipated in
the discharge current when electrons are transferred from an
electron donating species to provide an energy hole for hydrogen
atoms (molecules) including pressure controller means 325 and
current (voltage) source 330. The gas discharge energy reactor
further comprises a means 301 to remove the (molecular)
lower-energy hydrogen such as a selective venting valve to
prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to
equilibrium.

In another embodiment of the gas discharge energy reactor, the
source of energy hole can be one of a inelastic photon or
particle scattering reaction(s). In a preferred embodiment the
photon source 350 supplies the energy holes where the energy
hole corresponds to stimulated emission by the photon. In the
case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen atoms, the photon
source 350 dissociates hydrogen molecules into hydrogen atoms.
The photon source producing photons of at least one energy of
approximately mX27.21 eV, ##EQU112## or 40.8 eV causes
stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen atoms undergo the
shrinkage reaction. In another preferred embodiment, a photon
source 350 producing photons of at least one energy of
approximately mX48.6 eV, 95.7 eV, or mX31.94 eV causes
stimulated emission of energy as the hydrogen molecules undergo
the shrinkage reaction.

In another embodiment, a magnetic field can be applied by
magnetic field generator 75 of FIG. 5 to produce a magnetized
plasma of the gaseous ions which can be a nonlinear media.
Coupling of resonator cavities and enhancement of the transfer
of energy between them can be increased when the media is
nonlinear. Thus, the reaction rate (transfer of the resonance
shrinkage energy of the hydrogen atoms to the energy holes, the
electrocatalytic ions or couples) can be increased and
controlled by providing and adjusting the applied magnetic field
strength.

In one embodiment of the method of operation of the gas
discharge energy reactor, hydrogen from source 322 can be
introduced inside of the chamber 300 through control valve 325.
A current source 330 causes current to pass between a cathode
305 and an anode 320. The hydrogen contacts the cathode which
comprises a source of energy holes of approximately mX27.21 eV
to cause atomic hydrogen "shrinkage" and approximately mX48.6 eV
to cause molecular hydrogen "shrinkage" where m is an integer.
In a preferred embodiment, electrons are transferred from an
electron donating species present on the cathode 305 to the
discharge current to provide energy holes for hydrogen atoms
(molecules). In the case of a reactor which shrinks hydrogen
atoms, the molecular hydrogen can be dissociated into atomic
hydrogen by a dissociating material on the cathode 305 or by a
source of electromagnetic radiation including UV light provided
by photon source 350 such that the dissociated hydrogen atoms
contact a source of energy holes including a molten, liquid,
gaseous, or solid source of the energy holes. The atomic
(molecular) hydrogen releases energy as its electrons are
stimulated to undergo transitions to lower energy levels by the
energy holes. The energy dissipated in the discharge current
when electrons are transferred from an electron donating species
can be controlled to provide an energy hole equal to the
resonance shrinkage energy for hydrogen atoms (molecules) by
controlling the gas pressure from source 322 with pressure
controller means 325 and the voltage with the current (voltage)
source 330. The heat output can be monitored with thermocouples
present in at least the cathode 305, the anode 320, and the heat
exchanger 60 of FIG. 5. The output power can be controlled by a
computerized monitoring and control system which monitors the
thermistors and controls the means to alter the power output.
The (molecular) lower-energy hydrogen can be removed by a means
301 to prevent the exothermic shrinkage reaction from coming to
equilibrium.

In another embodiment of the gas discharge energy reactor, a
preferred cathode 305 comprises the catalytic material including
a spillover catalyst described in the Pressurized Gas Energy
Reactor Section.

Another embodiment of the gas discharge energy reactor
comprises a gaseous source of energy holes wherein the shrinkage
reaction occurs in the gas phase, and the gaseous hydrogen atoms
are provided by a discharge of molecular hydrogen gas. In a
further embodiment the gaseous source of energy holes can be
provided by a discharge current which produces the gaseous
source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) such as
a discharge in potassium metal to form K.sup.+ /K.sup.+,
rubidium metal to form Rb.sup.+, or titanium metal to form
Ti.sup.2+. The embodiment comprises a hydrogen isotope gas
filled glow discharge chamber 300. The glow discharge cell can
be operated at an elevated temperature such this the source of
energy holes (electrocatalytic ion or couple) can be sublimed,
boiled, or volatilized into the gas phase. In an embodiment, the
counterion of the source of energy holes (electrocatalytic ion
or couple) can be the hydride anion (H.sup.-) such as rubidium
hydride (Rb.sup.+ electrocatalytic ion) and/or potassium hydride
(K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple).

In an embodiment, the source of energy holes can be an
electrocatalytic ion or electrocatalytic couple comprising
cation-anion pairs in the gas phase wherein the cation-anion
pairs are dissociated by external source means 75 of FIG. 5
which includes, for example, a particle source 75b and/or photon
source 75a and/or a source of heat, acoustic energy, electric
fields, or magnetic fields. In a preferred embodiment, the
cation-anion pairs are thermally dissociated by heat source 75
of FIG. 5 or photodissociated by photon source 350 of FIG. 8.

**Refrigeration Means**

A further embodiment of the present invention comprises a
refrigeration means which comprises the electrolytic cell of
FIG. 6, the pressurized hydrogen gas cell of FIG. 7, and the
hydrogen gas discharge cell of FIG. 8 of the present invention
wherein a source of lower-energy atomic (molecular) hydrogen is
supplied rather than a source of normal hydrogen. The
lower-energy hydrogen atoms are reacted to a higher energy state
with the absorption of heat energy according to the reverse of
the catalytic shrinkage reaction such as those given by Eqs.
(4-6); (7-9); (10-12); (13-15); (16-18); (48-50); (51-53);
(54-56); (57-59); (60-62), (63-65), (66-68), (69-71), (72-74),
and (75-77). The lower-energy hydrogen molecules are reacted to
a higher energy state with the absorption of heat energy
according to the reverse of the catalytic shrinkage reaction
such as that given by Eqs. (78-80); (81-83); (84-86); (88-90),
and (91-93). In this embodiment, means 101, 201 and 301 of FIGS.
6, 7, and 8, respectively, serve to remove the normal hydrogen
such as a selective venting valves to prevent the endothermic
reaction from coming to equilibrium.

Compositions of Matter Comprising at Least Lower-Energy
Hydrogen Atom(s) and/or Lower-energy Hydrogen Molecule(s)

The present invention further comprises molecules containing
lower-energy hydrogen atoms. Lower-energy hydrogen can be
reacted with any atom of the periodic chart or known organic or
inorganic molecule or compound or metal, nonmetal, or
semiconductor to form an organic or inorganic molecule or
compound or metal, nonmetal, or semiconductor containing
lower-energy hydrogen atoms and molecules. The reactants with
lower-energy hydrogen include neutral atoms, negatively or
positively charged atomic and molecular ions, and free radicals.
For example, lower-energy hydrogen can be reacted with water or
oxygen to form a molecule containing lower-energy hydrogen and
oxygen, and lower-energy hydrogen can be reacted with singly
ionized helium to form a molecule containing helium and
lower-energy hydrogen. Lower-energy hydrogen can be also reacted
with metals. In one embodiment of the electrolytic cell energy
reactor, lower-energy hydrogen produced during operation at the
cathode can be incorporated into the cathode by reacting with
it; thus, a metal-lower-energy hydrogen material can be
produced. In all such reactions, the reaction rate and product
yield are increased by applying heat, and/or pressure.

Lower-energy hydrogen molecules (dihydrinos) are purified from
hydrogen gas by combustion of the normal hydrogen. Oxygen can be
mixed with the sample to be purified, and the sample can be
ignited. In a second embodiment of the method of dihydrino
purification, the sample can be flowed over a hydrogen
recombiner which reacts with the normal hydrogen in the gas
stream to form water. In a third embodiment, lower-energy
hydrogen molecules (dihydrinos) are collected in a cathode of an
electrolytic energy reactor of the present invention such as a
metal cathode including a nickel cathode or a carbon cathode.
The cathode can be heated in a vessel to a first temperature
which causes normal hydrogen to preferentially off gas by
external heating or by flowing a current through the cathode.
The normal hydrogen can be pumped off, then the cathode can be
heated to a second higher temperature at which dihydrino gas can
be released and collected. In a fourth embodiment, the gas
sample is purified by cryofiltration including gas
chromatography at low temperature such as gas chromatography
with an activated carbon (charcoal) column at liquid nitrogen
temperature and with a column which will separate para from
ortho hydrogen such as an Rt-Alumina column, or a HayeSep column
at liquid nitrogen temperature wherein normal hydrogen can be
retained to a greater extent than dihydrino. In a fifth
embodiment, the gas sample is purified by cryodistillation
wherein normal hydrogen can be liquefied and separated from
gaseous lower-energy hydrogen (dihydrino). The dihydrino can be
concentrated by liquefaction in liquid helium.

**EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF THE PRESENT THEORY**

**EXAMPLE 1**

The article by Mills and Good [Mills, R., Good, W., "Fractional
Quantum Energy Levels of Hydrogen", Fusion Technology, Vol. 28,
No. 4, November, (1995), pp. 1697-1719] describes the
determination of excess heat release during the electrolysis of
aqueous potassium carbonate by the very accurate and reliable
method of heat measurement, flow calorimetry; describes the
experimental identification of hydrogen atoms in fractional
quantum energy levels--hydrinos--by X-ray Photoelectron
Spectroscopy (XPS); describes the experimental identification of
hydrogen atoms in fractional quantum energy levels--hydrinos--by
emissions of soft x-rays from dark matter; describes the
experimental identification of hydrogen molecules in fractional
quantum energy levels--dihydrino molecules by high resolution
magnetic sector mass spectroscopy with ionization energy
determination, and gives a summary.

**In Summary**

The complete theory which predicts fractional quantum energy
levels of hydrogen and the exothermic reaction whereby
lower-energy hydrogen is produced is given elsewhere [Mills, R.,
The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995),
Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., provided by
HydroCatalysis Power Corporation, Great Valley Corporate Center,
41 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern, Pa., 19355, R. Mills;
Unification of Spacetime, the Forces, Matter, and Energy
(Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa., 1992)].

Excess power and heat were observed during the electrolysis of
aqueous potassium carbonate. Flow calorimetry of pulsed current
electrolysis of aqueous potassium carbonate at a nickel cathode
was performed in a single-cell dewar. The average power out of
24.6 watts exceeded the average input power (voltage times
current) of 4.73 watts by a factor greater than 5. The total
input energy (integration of voltage times current) over the
entire duration of the experiment was 5.72 MJ; whereas, the
total output energy was 29.8 MJ. No excess heat was observed
when the electrolyte was changed from potassium carbonate to
sodium carbonate. The source of heat is assigned to the
electrocatalytic, exothermic reaction whereby the electrons of
hydrogen atoms are induced to undergo transitions to quantized
energy levels below the conventional "ground state". These lower
energy states correspond to fractional quantum numbers: n=1/2,
1/3, 1/4, . . . . Transitions to these lower energy states are
stimulated in the presence of pairs of potassium ions (K.sup.+
/K.sup.+ electrocatalytic couple) which provide 27.2 eV energy
sinks.

The identification of the n=1/2 hydrogen atom , H(n=1/2) is
reported. Samples of the nickel cathodes of aqueous potassium
carbonate electrolytic cells and aqueous sodium carbonate
electrolytic cells were analyzed by XPS. A broad peak centered
at 54.6 eV was present only in the cases of the potassium
carbonate cells. The binding energy (in vacuum) of H(n=1/2) is
54.4 eV. Thus, the theoretical and measured binding energies for
H(n=1/2) are in excellent agreement.

Further experimental identification of hydrinos--down to
H(n=1/8)--can be found in the alternative explanation by Mills
et al. for the soft X-ray emissions of the dark interstellar
medium observed by Labov and Bowyer [S. Labov and S. Bowyer,
Astrophysical Journal, 371 (1991) 810] of the Extreme UV Center
of the University of California, Berkeley. The agreement between
the experimental spectrum and the energy values predicted for
the proposed transitions is remarkable.

The reaction product of two H(n=1/2) atoms, the dihydrino
molecule, was identified by mass spectroscopy (Shrader
Analytical & Consulting Laboratories). The mass spectrum of
the cryofiltered gases evolved during the electrolysis of a
light water K.sub.2 CO.sub.3 electrolyte with a nickel cathode
demonstrated that the dihydrino molecule, H.sub.2 (n=1/2), has a
higher ionization energy, about 63 eV, than normal molecular
hydrogen, H.sub.2 (n=1), 15.46 eV. The high resolution (0.001
AMU) magnetic sector mass spectroscopic analysis of the
postcombustion gases indicated the presence of two peaks of
nominal mass two at 70 eV and one peak at 25 eV. The same
analysis of molecular hydrogen indicates only one peak at 25 eV
and one peak at 70 eV. In the case of the postcombustion sample
at 70 eV, one peak was assigned as the hydrogen molecular ion
peak, H.sub.2.sup.+ (n=1), and one peak was assigned as the
dihydrino molecular peak, H.sub.2.sup.+ (n=1/2) which has a
slightly larger magnetic moment.

**EXAMPLE 2**

In the January 1994 edition of Fusion Technology, [Mills, R.,
Good, W., Shaubach, R., "Dihydrino Molecule Identification",
Fusion Technology, 25, 103 (1994)] Mills et al. review and
present three sets of data of heat production and "ash"
identification including the work of HydroCatalysis Power
Corporation (Experiments #1-#3) and Thermacore, Inc.
(Experiments #4-#14).

**In Summary**

Mills et al. report the experimental evidence supporting the
Mills theory that an exothermic reaction occurs wherein the
electrons of hydrogen atoms and deuterium atoms are stimulated
to relax to quantized potential energy levels below that of the
"ground state" via electrochemical reactants K.sup.+ and K.sup.+
; Pd.sup.2+ and Li.sup.+, or Pd and O.sub.2 of redox energy
resonant with the energy hole which stimulates this transition.
Calorimetry of pulsed current and continuous electrolysis of
aqueous potassium carbonate (K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic
couple) at a nickel cathode was performed. The excess power out
of 41 watts exceeded the total input power given by the product
of the electrolysis voltage and current by a factor greater than
8. The "ash" of the exothermic reaction is atoms having
electrons of energy below the "ground state" which are predicted
to form molecules. The predicted molecules were identified by
lack of reactivity with oxygen, by separation from molecular
deuterium by cryofiltration, and by mass spectroscopic analysis.

The combustion of the gases evolved during the electrolysis of
a light water K.sub.2 CO.sub.3 electrolyte (K.sup.+ /K.sup.+
electrocatalytic couple) with a nickel cathode was incomplete.
The mass spectroscopic analysis (Air Products & Chemicals,
Inc.) of uncombusted gases demonstrated that the species
predominantly giving rise to the m/e=2 peak must have a
different m/e=1 to m/e=2 production efficiency than hydrogen.
And, the further mass spectroscopic analysis of the m/e=2 peak
of the uncombusted gas demonstrated that the dihydrino molecule,
H.sub.2 (n=1/2), has a higher ionization energy than H.sub.2.

According to the analysis by Mills et al. of the raw data,
Miles of the China Lake Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons
Division observed the dideutrino molecule as a species with a
mass to charge ratio of four and having a higher ionization
potential than normal molecular deuterium. Miles was using mass
spectroscopy to analyze the cryofiltered gases evolved from
excess power producing electrolysis cells (palladium cathode and
a LiOD/D.sub.2 O electrolyte; an electrocatalytic couple of
27.54 eV). [B. F. BUSH, J. J. LAGOWSKI, M. H. MILES, and G. S.
OSTROM, "Helium Production During the Electrolysis of D.sub.2 O
in Cold Fusion Experiments", J. Electroanal. Chem., 304, 271
(1991); M. H. MILES, B. F. BUSH, G. S. OSTROM, and J. J.
LAGOWSKI, "Heat and Helium Production in Cold Fusion
Experiments", Proc. Conf. The Science of Cold Fusion, Como,
Italy, Jun. 29-Jul. 4, 1991, p. 363, T. BRESSANI, E. DEL
GIUDICE, and G. PREPARATA, Eds., SIF (1991); M. H. MILES, R. A.
HOLLINS, B. F. BUSH, J. J. LAGOWSKI, and R. E. J. MILES,
"Correlation of Excess Power and Helium Production During
D.sub.2 O and H.sub.2 O Electrolysis Using Palladium Cathodes",
J. Electroanal. Chem., 346, 99 (1993); M. H. MILES and B. F.
BUSH, "Search for Anomalous Effects Involving Excess Power and
Helium During D.sub.2 O Electrolysis Using Palladium Cathodes,"
Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Cold Fusion, Nagoya, Japan, Oct. 21-25,
1992, p. 189].

Palladium sheets coated on one side with a hydrogen impermeant
gold layer and coated on the other surface with an oxide coat
(MnO.sub.x, AlO.sub.x, SiO.sub.x) were deuterium or hydrogen
loaded at NTT Laboratories. Heat was observed from light and
heavy hydrogen only when the mixed oxide coat was present
(Pd/O.sub.2 electrocatalytic couple). The high resolution (0.001
AMU) quadrapole mass spectroscopic analysis of the gases
released when a current was applied to a deuterium (99.9%)
loaded MnO.sub.x coated palladium sheet indicate the presence of
a large shoulder on the D.sub.2 peak which Mills et al. assign
to the dideutrino molecule, D.sub.2 (n=1/2). [E. YAMAGUCHI and
T. NISHIOKA, "Direct Evidence for Nuclear Fusion Reactions in
Deuterated Palladium," Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Cold Fusion,,
Nagoya, Japan, October 21-25, 1992, p. 179; E. YAMAGUCHI and T.
NISHIOKA, "Helium-4 Production from Deuterated Palladium at Low
Energies," NTT Basic Research Laboratories and IMRA Europe S.
A., Personal Communication (1992)].

**EXAMPLE 3**

Pennsylvania State University has determined excess heat
release from flowing hydrogen in the presence of nickel oxide
powder containing strontium niobium oxide (Nb.sup.3+ /Sr.sup.2+
electrocatalytic couple) by the very accurate and reliable
method of heat measurement, thermopile conversion of heat into
an electrical output signal [Phillips, J., "A Calorimetric
Investigation of the Reaction of Hydrogen with Sample PSU #1",
Sep. 11, 1994, A Confidential Report submitted to HydroCatalysis
Power Corporation provided by HydroCatalysis Power Corporation,
Great Valley Corporate Center, 41 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern,
Pa. 19355]. Excess power and heat were observed with flowing
hydrogen over the catalyst which increased with increasing flow
rate. However, no excess power was observed with flowing helium
over the catalyst/nickel oxide mixture or flowing hydrogen over
nickel oxide alone. As shown in FIG. 9, approximately 10 cc of
nickel oxide powder containing strontium niobium oxide
immediately produced 0.55 W of steady state output power at
523.degree. K. When the gas was switched from hydrogen to
helium, the power immediately dropped. The switch back to
hydrogen restored the excess power output which continued to
increase until the hydrogen source cylinder emptied at about the
40,000 second time point. With no hydrogen flow the output power
fell to zero.

The source of heat is assigned to the electrocatalytic,
exothermic reaction whereby the electrons of hydrogen atoms are
induced to undergo transitions to quantized energy levels below
the conventional "ground state". These lower energy states
correspond to fractional quantum numbers: n=1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .
. Transitions to these lower energy states are stimulated in the
presence of pairs of niobium and strontium ions (Nb.sup.3+
/Sr.sup.2+ electrocatalytic couple) which provide 27.2 eV energy
sinks.

**EXAMPLE 4**

The article in the Spectral Data of Hydrinos from the Dark
Interstellar Medium and from the Sun Section of Mills [Mills,
R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics,
(1995), Technomic Publishing Company, Lancaster, Pa.] describes
the experimental identification of hydrogen atoms in fractional
quantum energy levels--hydrinos--by emissions of soft X-rays
from dark matter and the Sun; provides a resolution to the Solar
Neutrino Problem, the Temperature of the Solar Corona Problem,
the Broadening of the Hydrogen 911.8 .ANG. Line Problem, the
Temperature of the Transition from "Radiation Zone" to
"Convection Zone" Problem, the Cool Carbon Monoxide Clouds
Problem, the Stellar Age Problem, the Solar Rotation Problem,
the Solar Flare Problem, and the problem of the ionizing energy
source of hydrogen planets, and describes the experimental
identification of hydrogen atoms in fractional quantum energy
levels--hydrinos--by spin/nuclear hyperfine structure transition
energies obtained by COBE for which no other satisfactory
assignment exists.

**In Summary**

As shown in Table 1 Mills [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory
of Classical Quantum Mechanics, (1995), Technomic Publishing
Company, Lancaster, Pa.], hydrogen transitions to electronic
energy levels below the "ground" state corresponding to
fractional quantum numbers predicted by Mills' theory match the
spectral lines of the extreme ultraviolet background of
interstellar space. And, hydrogen disproportionation reactions
yield ionized hydrogen, energetic electrons, and hydrogen
ionizing radiation. This assignment resolves the paradox of the
identity of dark matter and accounts for many celestial
observations such as: diffuse H.alpha. emission is ubiquitous
throughout the Galaxy, and widespread sources of flux shortward
of 912 .ANG. are required [Labov, S., Bowyer, S., "Spectral
observations of the extreme ultraviolet background", The
Astrophysical Journal, 371, (1991), pp. 810-819].

Further experimental identification of hydrinos-down to
H(n=1/8)--can be found in the alternative explanation by Mills
for the soft X-ray emissions of the dark interstellar medium
observed by Labov and Bowyer [S. Labov and S. Bowyer,
Astrophysical Journal, 371 (1991) 810] of the Extreme UV Center
of the University of California, Berkeley. The agreement between
the experimental spectrum and the energy values predicted for
the proposed transitions is remarkable.

The paradox of the paucity of solar neutrinos to account for
the solar energy output by the pp chain is resolved by assigning
a major portion of the solar output to lower-energy hydrogen
transitions. The photosphere of the Sun is 6000 K; whereas, the
temperature of the corona based on the assignment of the emitted
X-rays to highly ionized heavy elements is in excess of 10.sup.6
K. No satisfactory power transfer mechanism is known which
explains the excessive temperature of the corona relative to
that of the photosphere. The paradox is resolved by the
existence of a power source associated with the corona. The
energy which maintains the corona at a temperature in excess of
10.sup.6 K is that released by disproportionation reactions of
lower-energy hydrogen as given by Eqs. (13-15). In Table 2 of
Mills, the energy released by the transition of the hydrino atom
with the initial lower-energy state quantum number p and radius
##EQU113## to the state with lower-energy state quantum number
(p+m) and radius ##EQU114## catalyzed by a hydrino atom with the
initial lower-energy state quantum number m', initial radius
##EQU115## and final radius a.sub.H are given in consecutive
order of energy from the 1.fwdarw.1/2 H transition to the
1/9.fwdarw.1/10 H transition. The agreement between the
calculated and the experimental values is remarkable.
Furthermore, many of the lines of Table 2 had no previous
assignment, or the assignment was unsatisfactory [Thomas, R. J.,
Neupert. W., M., Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, Vol.
91, (1994), pp. 461-482; Malinovsky, M., Heroux, L.,
Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 181, (1973), pp. 1009-1030; Noyes,
R., The Sun, Our Star, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma.,
(1982), p. 172; Phillips, J. H., Guide to the Sun, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, Great Britain, (1992), pp. 118-119;
120-121; 144-145]. The calculated power of 4.times.10.sup.26 W
matches the observed power output of 4.times.10.sup.26 W.

The broadening of the solar HI911.8 .ANG. line (911.8 .ANG. to
.apprxeq.600 .ANG.) is six times that predicted based on the
thermal electron energy at the surface of the photosphere
(T=6,000 K) where the HI 911.8 .ANG. continuum originates, and
based on the relative width of the helium continuum lines, He I
504.3 .ANG. (He I 504.3 .ANG. to .apprxeq.530 .ANG.) and He II
227.9 .ANG. (He II 227.9 .ANG. to .apprxeq.225 .ANG.) [Thomas,
R. J., Neupert, W., M., Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series,
Vol. 91, (1994), pp. 461-482; Stix, M., The Sun,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, (1991), pp. 351-356; Malinovsky, M.,
Heroux, L.. Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 181, (1973), pp.
1009-1030; Noyes, R., The Sun, Our Star, Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, Ma., (1982), p. 172; Phillips, J. H., Guide to
the Sun, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Great Britain,
(1992), pp. 118-119; 120-121; 144-145]. The latter lines are
proportionally much narrower; yet, the corresponding
temperatures of origin must be higher because the transitions
are more energetic. Furthermore, the H 911.8 .ANG. continuum
line of the spectrum of a prominence is about one half the width
of the same line of the quiet Sun spectrum. Yet, the temperature
rises to greater than 10,000 K in a prominence. The problem of
the anomalous spectral feature of the excessive broadening of
the continuum line of hydrogen to higher energies can be
resolved by assignment of the broadening mechanism to energetic
disproportionation reactions involving hydrogen atoms as
reactants.

The reaction product, lower-energy hydrogen, can be reionized
as it is diffuses towards the center of the Sun. The abrupt
change in the speed of sound and transition from "radiation
zone" to "convection zone" at a radius of 0.7 the solar radius,
0.7 R.sub.s, with a temperature of 2.times.10.sup.6 K matches
the ionization temperature of lower-energy hydrogen.

Another spectroscopic mystery concerns an infrared absorption
band of the chromosphere at a wavelength of 4.7 .mu.m which was
previously assigned to carbon monoxide despite the
implausibility of its existence in the observed region which has
a temperature above that at which carbon monoxide would break up
into its constituent carbon and oxygen atoms. This problem can
be resolved by assignment of the broad 4.7 .mu.m feature to a
temperature broadened rotational transition of a molecular ion
of lower-energy hydrogen. The assignment of the 4.7 .mu.m
absorption line to the J=0 to J=1 transition rotational
transition of H.sub.2.sup.\* [2c'=3a.sub.o ].sup.+ provides a
resolution of the problem of cool carbon monoxide clouds.

Modeling how stars evolve leads to age estimates for some stars
that are greater than the age of the universe. Mills' theory
predicts that presently, stars exist which are older than the
elapsed time of the present expansion as stellar evolution
occurred during the contraction phase.

General Relativity provides a resolution to the problem of the
loss of angular momentum of the core which is in agreement with
the current Solar models and helioseismology data. The photon
transfer of momentum to expanding spacetime mechanism provides a
resolution to the solar rotation problem of the slowly rotating
Solar core.

Further stellar evidence of disproportionation reactions is the
emission of extreme ultraviolet radiation by young stars called
A stars. They appear to have energetic, ultraviolet-emitting
upper atmospheres, or coronas, even though astronomers believe
such stars lack the ability to heat these regions.

Numerous late-type stars, particularly dM stars, are known to
flare from time to time at visible and X-ray wavelengths. An
extremely pronounced flare was observed by the Extreme
Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) Deep Survey telescope on the star AU
Microscopii at a count of 20 times greater than that at
quiescence [Bowyer, S., Science, Vol. 263, (1994), pp. 55-59].
Emission lines in the extreme ultraviolet were observed for
which there is no satisfactory assignment. These spectral lines
match hydrogen transitions to electronic energy levels below the
"ground" state corresponding to fractional quantum numbers as
shown in Table 3 of Mills. The lines assigned to lower-energy
hydrogen transitions increased significantly in intensity during
the flare event. The data is consistent with disproportionation
reactions of lower-energy hydrogen as the mechanism of solar
flare activity.

Planetary evidence of disproportionation reactions is the
emission of energy by Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus in excess of
that absorbed from the Sun. Jupiter is gigantic ball of gaseous
hydrogen. Saturn and Uranus are also largely comprised of
hydrogen. H.sub.3.sup.+ is detected from all three planets by
infrared emission spectroscopy [J. Tennyson, Physics World,
July, (1995), pp. 33-36]. Disproportionation reactions of
hydrogen yield ionizing electrons, energy, and ionized hydrogen
atoms. Ionizing electrons and protons can both react with
molecular hydrogen to produce H.sub.3.sup.+.

The spin/nuclear hyperfine structure transition energies of
lower-energy hydrogen match closely certain spectral lines
obtained by COBE [E. L. Wright, et. al., The Astrophysical
Journal, 381, (1991), pp. 200-209; J. C. Mather, et. al., The
Astrophysical Journal, 420, (1994), pp. 439-444] for which no
other satisfactory assignment exists.

**EXAMPLE 5**

Pennsylvania State University has determined excess heat
release from flowing hydrogen in the presence of ionic hydrogen
spillover catalytic material: 40% by weight potassium nitrate
(KNO.sub.3) on graphitic carbon powder with 5% by weight
1%-Pd-on-graphitic carbon (K.sup.+ /K.sup.+ electrocatalytic
couple) by the very accurate and reliable method of heat
measurement, thermopile conversion of heat into an electrical
output signal [Phillips, J., Shim, H., "Additional Calorimetric
Examples of Anomalous Heat from Physical Mixtures of K/Carbon
and Pd/Carbon", Jan. 1, 1996, A Confidential Report submitted to
HydroCatalysis Power Corporation provided by HydroCatalysis
Power Corporation, Great Valley Corporate Center, 41 Great
Valley Parkway, Malvern, Pa. 19355]. Excess power and heat were
observed with flowing hydrogen over the catalyst. However, no
excess power was observed with flowing helium over the catalyst
mixture. Rates of heat production were reproducibly observed
which were higher than that expected from the conversion of all
the hydrogen entering the cell to water, and the total energy
observed was over four times larger than that expected if all
the catalytic material in the cell were converted to the lowest
energy state by "known" chemical reactions. Thus, "anomalous"
heat, heat of a magnitude and duration which could not be
explained by conventional chemistry, was reproducibly observed.

**EXAMPLE 6**

Excess heat from a pressurized gas energy cell having a gaseous
source of energy holes has been observed by HydroCatalysis Power
Corporation [manuscript in progress] with low pressure hydrogen
in the presence of molybdenum iodide (MoI.sub.2) (Mo.sup.2+
electrocatalytic ion) which was volatilized at the operating
temperature of the cell, 210.degree. C. The calorimeter was
placed inside a large convection oven that maintained the
ambient temperature of the cell at the operating temperature.
The cell comprised a 40 cc stainless steel pressure vessel that
was surrounded by a 2 inch thick molded ceramic thermal
insulator. The cell was sealed with a vacuum tight flange that
had a two hole Buffalo gland for a tungsten wire to dissociate
molecular hydrogen, a perforation for a Type K thermocouple, a
1/16 inch inlet for hydrogen which was connected to a 1/4 inch
stainless steel tube which connected to the hydrogen supply. The
flange was sealed with a copper gasket. The bottom of the vessel
had a 1/4" vacuum port connected to a stainless steel tube with
a valve between the cell and a vacuum pump and vacuum gauge.
Less than one gram of MoI.sub.2 catalyst was placed in a ceramic
boat inside the vessel. The vapor pressure of the catalyst was
estimated to be about 50 millitorr at the operating temperature
210.degree. C. The hydrogen pressure of about 200 to 250
millitorr was controlled manually by adjusting the supply
through the inlet versus the amount pumped away at the outlet
where the pressure was monitored in the outlet tube by the
vacuum gauge. For each run, the total pressure was made
(including the MoI.sub.2 pressue in the case of the experimental
run) precisely 250 millitorr.

The output power was determined by measuring difference between
the cell temperature and the ambient oven temperature and
comparing the result to a calibration curve generated by
applying power to the inside of the cell with the tungsten
filament. Excess power of 0.3 watts was observed from the 40 cc
stainless steel reaction vessel containing less than 1 g of
MoI.sub.2 when hydrogen was flowed over the hot tungsten wire
(.apprxeq.2000.degree. C.). However, no excess power was
observed when helium was flowed over the hot tungsten wire or
when hydrogen was flowed over the hot tungsten wire with no
MoI.sub.2 present in the cell. Rates of heat production were
reproducibly observed which were higher than that expected from
the conversion of all the hydrogen inside the cell to water, and
the total energy observed was over 30 times larger than that
expected if all the catalytic material in the cell were
converted to the lowest energy state by "known" chemical
reactions. Thus, "anomalous" heat, heat of a magnitude and
duration which could not be explained by conventional chemistry,
was reproducibly observed.

The gaseous contents of the reactor were monitored with a mass
spectrometer. At the time that excess energy was produced
corresponding to the case wherein hydrogen was flowed over the
hot filament, a higher ionizing mass two species was observable;
whereas, during the control run wherein hydrogen was flowed over
the hot tungsten wire with no MoI.sub.2 present in the cell, a
higher ionizing mass two species was not observed. The higher
ionizing mass two species is was assigned to the dihydrino
molecule, ##EQU116##.

---

  

**WO 92/10838**

**Energy/Matter Conversion Methods &
Structures**

**Randell Mills**

(June 25, 1992)

**Abstract:** Methods and structures to release heat energy
from hydrogen atoms by stimulating their electrons to relax to a
quantized potential energy level below that of the ground state
via an electrochemical reactant(s) of redox energy resonant with
the energy hole which stimulates this transition. Methods and
structures to conform the electronic energy of the hydrogen
atoms and the redox energy of the eletrochemical reactant(s) to
enhance the hydrogen electronic transition rate where the source
of hydrogen atoms is aqueous electrolyic production on the
surface of a cathode.

![](wo0.jpg)

**[Complete Patent (GIF)](9210838.htm)**

---

  

**European Patent Office List of
Blacklight Power Patents**

**http://ep.espacenet.com/espacenet/ep/en/e\_net.htm**

CA2440287 ~ Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, and Power
Converter   
ID24377 ~ No English title available.   
WO03093173 ~ Diamond Synthesis   
ZA200207575 ~ Hydrogen catalysis   
WO03066516 ~ Hydrogen Power, Plasma, and Reactor for Lasing and
Power Conversion   
CA2400788 ~ Hydrogen Catalysis   
CA2396559 ~ Ion Cyclotron and Converter and Radio Power
Microwave Generator   
CA2320597 ~ Ion Cyclotron and Converter and Radio Power
Microwave Generator   
EP1264519 ~ Ion Cyclotron and Converter and Radio Power
Microwave Generator   
WO02088020 ~ Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, and Power
Converter   
WO02087291 ~ Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, and Power
Converter   
AU5293901 ~ Hydrogen Catalysis   
WO0170627 ~ Hydrogen Catalysis   
AU6133500 ~ Ion cyclotron Power Converter and Radio and
Microwave Generator   
AU734961 ~ Hydrogen Catalysis Power Cell for Energy Conversion
Systems   
AU2723301 ~ Ion Cyclotron Power Converter and Radio and
Microwave Generator   
AU2723201 ~ Ion Cyclotron and Converter and Radio Power
Microwave Generator   
WO0122472 ~ Ion Cyclotron Power Converter and Radio and
Microwave Generator   
WO0121300 ~ Ion Cyclotron and Converter and Radio Power
Microwave Generator   
EP1031169 ~ Inorganic Hydrogen Compounds, Separation Methods,
and Fuel Applications   
EP1029380 ~ Hydrogen Power Catalysis Power Cell for Energy
Conversion Systems   
US6024935 ~ Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods and Structures   
AU3634999 ~ Hydrogen Catalysis Power Cell for Energy Conversion
Systems   
AU705379 ~ Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods and Structures   
AU8477298 ~ Inorganic Hydrogen Compounds, Separation Methods,
and Fuel Applications   
CN1187146 ~ Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods and Structures   
EP0858662 ~ Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods and Structures   
PL324187 ~ Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods and Structures   
AU6146596 ~ Lower-Energy Hydrogen Methods and Structures

**[Abstracts of Blacklight Power's WO
Patents](wopatabs.htm)**

---

  

**Links**

Hydrino Study Group ~ http://www.hydrino.org/   
Yahoo Hydrino Group ~
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/hydrino/links   
Amazon.com ~ Mill's book, *The Grand Unified Theory of
Classical Quantum Mechanics*:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0963517139/qid%3D970209991/sr%3D1-2/104-5339213-1359151
  
LENR-CANR Archives ~
www.lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MalloveElenrandcol.pdf

---

  
**Press Articles**

Eric Baard: "Harvard MD Challenges Big Bang Theory" ~
http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/blacklight\_power\_000522.html
  
Eric Baard: "Quantum Leap" ~
http://www.villagevoice.com/issues/9951/baard.php   
Eric Baard: "Filler 'Er Up: With Plasma?" ~
http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/generalscience/blacklight\_plasma\_000523.html
  
Eric Baard: "NASA Takes a Flyer on Hydrinos" ~
http://wired.com/news/business/0,1367,51792,00.html   
"Academics Question The Science Behind BlackLight Power, Inc" ~
http://www.thecrimson.com/features/article.asp?ref=7964   
"Bad Energy, Man" ~
http://www.villagevoice.com/issues/0019/cotts.shtml   
"DNA Computing" ~
http://people.ne.mediaone.net/beefpile6/future/pages/bad/stocks.html
  
Eric Krieg's BLP Page ~ http://www.phact.org/e/blp.htm   
David Bradley: "The Alchemist" ~
http://chemweb.com/alchem/2000/catalyst/ct\_000324\_hydrino.html   
"John Galt of Quantum Mechanics?" ~
http://www.dailyobjectivist.com/Extro/quantummechanics.htm   
"New Definition for "Chemical Element"?" ~
http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/ci/31/i10/html/10vp.html
  
"Shrinking Atoms" ~
http://www.futureframe.de/science/000821-hydrinos.htm   
Art Rosenblum, "Randall L. Mills --- New Energy and the Cosmic
Hydrino Sea", *Infinite Energy*, 3(17), Dec. 1997-Jan.
1998, p. 21-34   
Eugene Mallove, "Dr. Randall Mills and the power of BlackLight",
*Infinite Energy*, 2(12), Jan.-Feb. 1997, p. 21, 35, 41.

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